Which of the following describes a 'formative assessment' in a undergraduate Calculus course?

A low-stakes weekly quiz designed to provide immediate feedback to students on their understanding of limits.

A comprehensive end-of-unit project used to certify that a student has mastered integral theorems.

A standardized entrance exam used to place students into specific mathematics tracks.

A final examination that accounts for 50 percent of the total course grade.

In the context of mathematics education, what is the primary distinction between 'reliability' and 'validity' regarding a multivariable calculus examination?

Reliability refers to the consistency of the test scores, while validity refers to whether the test accurately measures the intended mathematical constructs.

Reliability refers to the diversity of question types, while validity refers to the statistical correlation between homework and exam grades.

Reliability measures the difficulty level of the partial derivative problems, while validity measures the time taken by students to complete them.

Reliability ensures the test includes z = f(x, y) notation, while validity ensures the test is graded using a curved scale.

An instructor uses a 'rubric' to evaluate student proofs in a Linear Algebra course. Which of the following best describes the benefit of using a 'criterion-referenced' rubric over 'norm-referenced' grading for this assessment?

It measures student performance against fixed learning goals and pre-defined standards rather than comparing students against their peers.

It ranks students from highest to lowest based on their ability to solve Ax = b relative to the class average.

It simplifies the grading process by only awarding points for the final numerical answer regardless of the logical steps taken.

It ensures that only a small percentage of the class can receive an 'A' to maintain a specific grade distribution.

Which of the following describes an 'Authentic Assessment' task in a college-level Differential Equations course?

Asking students to model the spread of a local virus using actual population data and proposing a solution based on their mathematical findings.

A multiple-choice worksheet where students identify the order and linearity of provided equations like y'' + 5y' + 6y = 0 .

Requiring students to memorize and recite a list of twenty different integration formulas during a proctored session.

A timed drill where students solve 50 basic separable equations to increase their calculation speed.

In mathematics education, what is the primary purpose of a 'Diagnostic Assessment' administered at the beginning of a Real Analysis course?

To identify specific gaps in students' prerequisite knowledge of logic and set theory before starting new instruction.

To provide a summative evaluation of the students' previous semester's performance in Calculus.

To rank students based on their mathematical aptitude to ensure a normal distribution of final grades.

To determine the final course grades based on the students' initial ability to prove the \epsilon - \delta definition of a limit.

In the context of evaluating mathematical problem-solving, what is the primary purpose of a 'Holistic Rubric'?

To assess the overall quality of a student's mathematical reasoning and communication on a task as a whole, rather than scoring individual components separately.

To evaluate only the final result of a calculation while ignoring the logical steps or methods used to reach that result.

To provide a detailed breakdown of points for every specific arithmetic operation performed in an expression like 2x + 5 = 11 .

To compare a student's final numerical answer against a standardized database of global student scores.

Which of the following describes the concept of 'alignment' in the context of mathematics assessment at the university level?

The degree to which the learning objectives, instructional activities, and exam questions are in agreement with one another.

The statistical correlation between a student's performance in Calculus I and their performance in Linear Algebra.

The requirement that all mathematical symbols and LaTeX formulas are perfectly centered on the printed page.

The process of ensuring all students' desk positions are equidistant during a high-stakes \mathbb{R}^n geometry exam.

Which of the following scenarios best illustrates 'Assessment FOR Learning' in a University-level Discrete Mathematics course?

An instructor reviews student work on a logic proof, provides specific descriptive feedback on their use of the contrapositive, and allows them to revise their logic before the next session.

A student calculates their own weighted average of all homework assignments completed throughout the semester to predict their final letter grade.

An instructor records students' scores on a midterm exam covering P(n, r) permutations and reports them to the registrar.

A department head administers a final comprehensive exit exam to determine which students should receive a degree in Mathematics.

Which of the following describes a 'criterion-referenced' evaluation in a university calculus course?

Comparing a student's performance against a fixed set of predetermined learning objectives and rubric standards.

Ranking a student's score relative to the performance of their peers in the same class.

Adjusting final grades so that they follow a specific bell curve distribution.

Assigning grades based on the historical average scores of students from previous years.

Which of the following describes the 'reliability' of a mathematics assessment tool?

The consistency with which an assessment produces the same results under consistent conditions.

The extent to which an assessment measures what it is intended to measure.

The degree to which the assessment tasks are aligned with the curriculum standards.

The ability of an assessment to predict a student's future performance in advanced mathematics.

In mathematics education, what is the primary purpose of a 'Diagnostic Assessment' administered at the beginning of a linear algebra course?

To identify specific strengths and gaps in students' prerequisite knowledge before instruction begins.

To provide a final grade for the course based on prior knowledge.

To rank students from highest to lowest for the purpose of university honors.

To evaluate the effectiveness of the instructor's teaching methods at the end of the semester.

Which of the following describes 'Construct Validity' in the context of a university-level Abstract Algebra exam?

The degree to which the exam actually measures the theoretical knowledge of algebraic structures it claims to measure.

The consistency of the scores across different graders or time periods.

The physical design and structural layout of the examination paper.

The extent to which the exam questions cover the entire syllabus proportionally.

In mathematics evaluation, what is the specific purpose of using an 'Analytic Rubric' rather than a 'Holistic Rubric' when grading a complex proof?

To provide specific feedback on independent dimensions such as logical flow, notation accuracy, and conceptual understanding.

To ensure that students are ranked against each other using a normal distribution of scores.

To reduce the amount of time the instructor spends providing written feedback to the student.

To provide a single, overall score based on the general impression of the proof's quality.

In mathematics education, the 'Discrimination Index' of a test item is a statistical measure used to determine:

The ability of a specific item to distinguish between high-performing and low-performing students.

The mathematical difficulty level of the item mapped to p -values.

The percentage of students who answered the item correctly regardless of their total score.

Whether the item contains biased language that unfairly targets a specific demographic group.

When designing a mathematics assessment, the 'Authenticity' of a task is high if it:

Requires students to apply mathematical concepts to solve complex, real-world problems similar to those encountered by professionals.

Focuses exclusively on the rapid recall of trigonometric identities and basic arithmetic.

Ensures that every student receives a different set of randomized numerical values for the same rote formula.

Strictly follows the exact format and layout of standardized national examinations from previous years.

In mathematics education, the 'Backwash Effect' (or washback) refers to the influence that an assessment has on:

The teaching and learning processes leading up to the assessment.

The ability of one student's score to influence the scores of their peers.

The historical reputation of the educational institution.

The statistical normalization of scores after the exam is completed.

Which of the following describes a 'formative assessment' in the context of a university-level Calculus course?

An ungraded weekly quiz used to provide immediate feedback to students on their understanding of limits while the unit is still in progress.

A final examination conducted at the end of the semester to determine the student's grade for the course.

A high-stakes summative project that accounts for 40% of the final course grade.

A standardized national competency test taken by mathematics majors to measure overall program effectiveness.

In the context of mathematics education, what is the primary purpose of using 'Criterion-Referenced Evaluation' when assessing a student's performance on a topic like Linear Algebra ?

To measure a student's performance against a fixed set of pre-defined learning standards or specific tasks.

To compare a student's score against the average performance of their peers in the same class.

To adjust the difficulty of the questions based on the bell curve distribution of the previous year's results.

To rank students from highest to lowest to determine who receives the highest honors.

When designing a rubric for an open-ended mathematical proof, what is the primary benefit of using an 'Analytic Rubric' over a 'Holistic Rubric'?

It provides specific feedback on multiple dimensions of the task, such as logical flow, notation accuracy, and conceptual understanding.

It eliminates the need for any subjective judgment by the evaluator when grading complex Topological proofs.

It ensures that a student's score is calculated based on how well they performed relative to the rest of the class.

It allows the grader to assign a single overall score much faster by getting a general sense of the work.

Which of the following describes 'Reliability' in the assessment of a student's performance in Discrete Mathematics ?

The consistency of the assessment results when the test is repeated under similar conditions.

The extent to which the test covers the entire syllabus of the course.

The ability of the test to predict a student's future success in advanced graduate-level mathematics.

The degree to which the assessment accurately reflects the theoretical constructs of graph theory.

In the context of evaluating mathematical proficiency, 'Diagnostic Assessment' is most typically used at which stage of the instructional process for a course such as Differential Equations ?

At the beginning of a unit or course to identify students' prior knowledge, existing misconceptions, and readiness for new material.

During the midpoint of the course to assign a permanent grade for a student's transcript.

As a final summative measure to certify that a student has met the learning outcomes of the entire curriculum.

Strictly after a student has failed a final exam to determine if they should be allowed to retake the course.

In the assessment of higher-order thinking in mathematics, which item type is best suited to evaluate a student's ability to 'synthesize' mathematical concepts and communicate a logical progression of ideas in Real Analysis ?

Extended-response mathematical proofs

True or False questions regarding definitions

Short-answer calculation questions

Multiple-choice questions with four options

In the context of the 'Zone of Proximal Development' applied to mathematical assessment, what characterizes a 'scaffolded' assessment task in a Statistics course?

A multi-part problem that provides intermediate prompts or cues to help the student solve complex problems that they cannot yet solve independently.

A final summative evaluation that only tests the most difficult theorems without any prior practice.

A competitive assessment where the difficulty level increases based on how quickly the student answers the questions.

A rigorous exam where students are forbidden from using calculators or formula sheets to ensure pure memory recall.

When considering 'Authentic Assessment' in a college-level Financial Mathematics course, which of the following tasks best fits the definition?

A project where students must analyze real-time market data to design and justify an investment portfolio for a specific client scenario.

A lecture-based quiz where students recall the historical dates of major economic collapses.

A timed multiple-choice test focusing on the definitions of interest and principal.

A repetitive worksheet requiring students to solve 50 similar equations for A = P(1 + rt) .

In mathematics evaluation, what is the 'Halo Effect' and how might it impact the grading of a student's Abstract Algebra proof?

A cognitive bias where a grader's overall positive impression of a student, based on previous high performance, leads them to overlook specific logical errors in a current assignment.

The requirement that students must show all intermediate steps in a calculation to receive full credit for the final result.

The tendency of a grader to become more lenient over time as they grade a large stack of similar examinations.

A statistical phenomenon where the difficulty of a question appears lower because it was preceded by an extremely difficult question.

Assessment and Evaluation in Mathematics

Can you make a multiple choice of test questions regarding this information given which is Curriculum from Different Points of View There are many definitions of curriculum. Because of this, the concept of curriculum is sometimes characterized as fragmentary, elusive and confusing. However, the numerous definitions indicate dynamism that connotes diverse interpretations of what curriculum is all about. The definitions are influenced by models of thought, pedagogies, political as well as cultural experiences. Let us study some of these definitions. 1. Traditional Points of View of Curriculum In early years of the 20th century, the traditional concepts held of the “curriculum is that it is a body of subjects or subject matter prepaid by the teachers for the student’s to learn”. It was synonymous to the “course of study” and “syllabus” Robert M. Hutchins views curriculum as “permanent studies” where the rules of grammar, reading, rhetoric and logic and mathematics for basic education are emphasized. Basic education should emphasize the 3 Rs and college education should be grounded on liberal education. On the other, Arthur Bestor as an essentialist, believes that the mission of the school should be intellectual training, hence curriculum should focus on the fundamental intellectual disciplines of grammar, literature and writing. It should also include mathematics, science, history and foreign language. The definition leads us to the view of Joseph Schwab that discipline is the sole source of curriculum. Thus in our education system, curriculum is divided into chunks of knowledge we call subject areas in basic education such as English, Mathematics, Science, Social Studies and others. In college, discipline may include humanities, sciences, language and many more. To Phoenix, curriculum should consist entirely of knowledge which comes from various disciplines. Academic discipline became the view of what curriculum is after the cold war and the race to space. Joseph Schwab, a leading curriculum theorist coined the term discipline as a ruling doctrine for curriculum development. Curriculum should consist only of knowledge which comes from disciplines which is the sole source. Thus curriculum can be viewed as a field of study. It is made up of its foundations (philosophical, historical, psychological and social foundations); domains of knowledge as well as its research theories and principles. Curriculum is taken as scholarly and theoretical. It is concerned with broad historical, philosophical and social issues and academics. Most of the traditional ideas view curriculum as written documents or a plan of action in accomplishing goals. 2. Progressive Points of View of Curriculum On the other hand, to a progressivist, a listing of school subjects, syllabi, course of study, and a list of courses or specific discipline do not make a curriculum. These can only be called curriculum if the written materials are actualized by the learner. Broadly speaking, curriculum is defined as the total learning experiences of the individual. This definition is anchored on John Dewey’s definition of experience and education. He believed that reflective thinking is a means that unifies curricular elements. Thought is not derived from action but tested by application. Caswell and Campbell viewed curriculum as “all experiences children have under the guidance of teachers”. This definition is shared by Smith, Stanley and Shores when they defined “curriculum as a sequence of potential experiences set up in the schools for the purpose of disciplining children and youth in group ways of thinking and acting”. Marsh and Willis on the other hand view curriculum as all the “experiences in the classroom which are planned and enacted by the teacher, and also learned by the students”. Points of View on Curriculum Development From the various definitions and concepts presented, it is clear that curriculum is a dynamic process. Development connotes changes which are systematic. A change for the better means any alteration, modification or improvement of existing condition. To produce positive changes, development should be purposeful, planned and progressive. This is how curriculum evolves. Let us look at the two models of curriculum development and concepts of Ralph Tyler and Hilda Taba. Ralph Tyler Model: Four Basic Principles. This is also popularly known as Tyler’s Rationale. He posited four fundamental questions or principles in examining any curriculum in schools. These four fundamental principles are as follows: 1. What educational purposes should the school seek to attain? 2. What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these purposes? 3. How can these educational experiences be effectively organized? 4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained or not? In summary, Tyler’s Model show that in curriculum development, the following considerations should be made: (1) Purpose of the school, (2) Educational experiences related to the purposes, (3) Organization of the experiences, and (4) Evaluation of the experiences. On the other hand, Hilda Taba improved on Tyler’s Rationale by making a linear model. She believed that teachers who teach or implement the curriculum should participate in developing it. Her advocacy was commonly called the grassroots approach. She presented seven major steps to her model where teachers could have a major input. These steps are as follows: 1. Diagnosis of learner’s needs and expectations of the larger society. 2. Formulation of learning objectives. 3. Selection of learning content. 4. Organization of learning content. 5. Selection of learning experiences. 6. Organization of learning activities. 7. Determination of what to evaluate and the means of doing it. Thus as you look into curriculum models, the three interacting processes in curriculum development are planning, implementing and evaluating. Types of Curriculum Operating in Schools From the various concepts given, Allan Glatthorn(2000) describes seven types of curriculum operating in the schools. These are (1) Recommended curriculum- proposed by scholars and professional organizations. (2) Written Curriculum- appears in school, district, division or country documents. (3) Taught Curriculum- what teacher’s implement or deliver in the classrooms and schools. (4) Supported Curriculum- resources-textbooks, computers, audio- visual materials which support and help in the implementation of the curriculum. (5) Assessed Curriculum- that which is tested and evaluated. (6) Learned Curriculum- which the students actually learn and what is measured and (7) Hidden Curriculum- the unintended curriculum. 1. Recommended Curriculum- Most of the school curricula are recommended. The curriculum may come from a national agency like the Department of Education, Commission on Higher Education (CHED), Department of Science and Technology (DOST) or any professional organization who has stake in education. For example the Philippine Association for Teacher Education (PAFTE) or the Biology Teacher Association (BIOTA) may recommend a curriculum to be implemented in the elementary or secondary education. 2. Written Curriculum- This includes documents, course of study or syllabi handed down to the schools, districts, division, departments or colleges for implementation. Most of the written curricula are made by curriculum experts with participation of teachers. These were pilot-tested or tried out in sample schools or population. Example of this is the Basic Education Curriculum (BEC). Another example is the written lesson plan of each classroom teacher made up of objectives and planned activities of the teacher. 3. Taught Curriculum- The different planned activities which are put into action in the classroom compose the taught curriculum. These are varied activities that are implemented in order to arrive at the objectives or purposes of the written curriculum. These are used by the learners with the guidance of teachers. Taught curriculum varies according to the learning styles of students and the teaching styles of teachers. 4. Supported Curriculum- In order to have a successful teaching, other than the teacher, there must be materials which should support or help in the implementation of a written curriculum. These refer to the support curriculum that includes material resources such as textbooks, computers, audio-visual materials, laboratory equipment, playgrounds, zoos and other facilities. Support curriculum should enable each learner to achieve real and lifelong learning. 5. Assessed Curriculum- This refers to a tested or evaluated curriculum. At the duration and end of the teaching episodes, series of evaluations are being done by the teachers to determine the extent of teaching or to tell if the students are progressing. This refers to the assessed curriculum. Assessment tools like pencil-and-paper tests, authentic instruments like portfolio are being utilized. 6. Learned Curriculum- This refers the learning outcomes achieved by the students. Learning outcomes are indicated by the results of the tests and changes in behavior which can either be cognitive, affective or psychomotor. 7. Hidden Curriculum- This is the unintended curriculum which is not deliberately planned but may modify behavior or influenced learning outcomes. There are lots of hidden curricula that transpire in the schools. Peer influence, school environment, physical condition, teacher-learner interaction, mood of the teachers and many other factors made up the hidden curriculum.

Evaluation and Assessment in Special Education: Final Quiz

Reading Passage: The Anatomy of a Kill Chain In the lexicon of modern warfare, the term "kill chain" describes the end-to-end process of a military attack, from the initial identification of a target to its eventual destruction and the subsequent evaluation of the strike's effectiveness. Conceptually, the kill chain is a structural model used to understand and optimize the speed and precision of military operations. The fundamental principle of this model is that an attack functions as a sequence of interdependent stages; if any single link in the chain is broken, the entire operation fails. For strategic planners, this creates a dual objective: to accelerate one's own kill chain while simultaneously finding ways to disrupt the adversary's. Strategic Concept: The Kinetic Model (F2T2EA) The traditional military kill chain is often summarized by the acronym F2T2EA, representing a continuous cycle of find, fix, track, target, engage, and assess. The kinetic kill chain begins with Find, the reconnaissance phase where intelligence assets identify a potential target within a theater of operations. Once found, the process moves to Fix, which involves pinning down the target's specific location and ensuring it can be distinguished from friendly forces or non-combatants. Track follows, maintaining a persistent watch on the target's movements to prevent its escape. In the Target phase, commanders select the appropriate weapon system and verify the legality and strategic value of the strike. Engage is the kinetic moment—the actual deployment of ordnance against the objective. Finally, Assess involves battle damage assessment (BDA) to determine if the desired effects were achieved or if further engagement is required. This model emphasizes "compressing the sensor-to-shooter timeline," meaning the faster a military can move through these steps, the more lethal it becomes. The Evolution: The Cyber Kill Chain® As warfare expanded into the digital domain, Lockheed Martin adapted the kinetic model into the Cyber Kill Chain. This framework assists defenders in identifying and stopping Advanced Persistent Threats (APTs). Unlike a physical missile, a cyberattack often unfolds over weeks or months, but the sequential logic remains the same. The model consists of seven distinct stages: Stage Description of Attacker Activity 1. Reconnaissance The harvesting of information. Attackers research targets via social media, public records, and technical scanning to find vulnerabilities. 2. Weaponization Coupling a remote access trojan with an exploit into a deliverable payload (e.g., a malicious PDF or Microsoft Office document). 3. Delivery Transmission of the weapon to the target environment. Common vectors include email attachments, malicious websites, or USB drives. 4. Exploitation The weapon triggers. The code executes on the victim's system, typically by taking advantage of a software or operating system vulnerability. 5. Installation The attacker installs a persistent backdoor or malware on the victim's system, allowing them to maintain access even after a reboot. 6. Command & Control (C2) The compromised system opens a communication channel back to the attacker's server, allowing the intruder to give manual instructions. 7. Actions on Objective The final stage where the attacker achieves their goal, such as data exfiltration, encryption for ransom, or destruction of critical infrastructure. Strategic Implications for Defense The strategic value of the Cyber Kill Chain lies in its ability to provide a roadmap for "proactive defense." By understanding the sequence, security professionals can implement controls at every stage. For instance, robust email filtering can break the chain at the Delivery stage, while endpoint detection can stop the Installation phase. Crucially, the earlier a defender breaks the chain, the lower the cost of mitigation and the lower the risk of damage. If an attacker is stopped during Reconnaissance, they have gained nothing. If they are stopped during Actions on Objective, the damage may already be catastrophic. In both kinetic and cyber environments, the goal is the same: to create a "defensive depth" that makes the cost of a successful attack prohibitively high for the adversary.

What is a rubric? A tool comprising a set of criteria (with possible levels of performance quality on the criteria) developed to assess learners’ work, from written to oral to visual. It is used tomeasureperformance,suchastheprocess of doing something (e.g.,playing a musical instrument, making a speech) or products of the learners’ work (e.g., concept map, laboratory report, bookshelf) (Brookhart, 2013). BENEFITS OF USING RUBRICS Support authentic assessment Reflects how well learners are able to apply knowledge inthe real-world context. Communicate expectations Gives learners an idea of what is expected of them. It is especially useful when the rubrics are communicated to the learners before they are assessed. Improve performance Explicit criteria and performance level descriptions allow learners to understand the desired performance. Learners are able to assess themselves by referring to the specific criteria and performance-level descriptions. Provide informative feedback Instructors are able to provide constructive feedback to learners on their weaknesses and strengths. Promote thinking andlearning 4 Provide informative feedback Instructors are able to provide constructive feedback to learners on their weaknesses and strengths. Learners are able to review and revise their work,thus reflecting on their learning experiences. Ensure fairness Learner performance assessed fairly given its objectivity. It helps avoid disputes between learners and instructors about the scores/grades achieved. TYPES OF RUBRIC ANALYTIC It consists of individual criterion with corresponding descriptor of performance. HOLISTIC It consists of performance descriptors that are placed together to refeclet to overalll performance. ANATOMY OF ANANALYTIC RUBRIC Rating scales with corresponding scores or weights The row represents the criteria for the desired performance, while the column represents the evaluation score. Under the rating scale (corresponding weights orscorescanbeassigned),theperformance descriptors are explicitly stated ANATOMYOF AHOLISTICRUBRIC Descriptions: It comprises the rating scale (corresponding weights or scores can be assigned) in the row while the combined desired performance descriptors are placed in the column. Description of the task The purpose of the assignment is to assess learner’s cognitive and analytic skills in applying knowledge gained and constructed throughout the course Diffusion of Innovation,bywatching the Surrogates movieand writing ananalytical review of the movie in the context of innovation diffusion.Iwant to provide learners with informative feedback on their cognitive and analytic skills such as the following: applying the concepts of innovation diffusion,making judgmentson the scenes related to innovation diffusion identified from the movie,selecting and critiquing theories of innovation diffusion and making connections between the theories,aswell asarguingand proposing necessary solutions to the problemss hown in the movie. ESTABLISHING ALTERNATIVEASSESSMENTINHIGHEREDUCATION VALIDITYAND RELIABILITYOF RUBRICS. Validity Measuring what is supossedto be measured. Reability Yielding consists results. Instruments that are used in the alternative assessment must be aligned to the learning outcomes and measure well what it intends to measure (valid) and produce consistent scores (reliable). The valid instrument will manifest the true ability (latent trait) of learners and permit appropriate inferences to be made about a specific group of people for specific purposes. TYPES OF VALIDITY FACE VALIDITY Simple form of validity thatapplies a superficial and subjective assessment whether the instrument measures what it is supposed to measure. CONTENT VALIDITY Refers to the extent to which the items on a measure assess the same content or how wellthe content material was sampled inthe measure. CONSTRUCT VALIDITY Refers to the extent to which the test may be said to measure a theoretical construct or trait. CONCURRENT VALIDITY Refers to the extent to which scores onanewmeasure are related to scores from a criterion measure administered at the same time. PREDICTIVE VALIDITY Refers to the uses of the scores from the new measure to predict performance on a criterion measure administered ata later time. STEPS TO CONSIDER WHEN ESTABLISHING CONTENT VALIDITY Calculate the level of expert agreeement for the content validity, get expert to verfy. Interview the expert ,make meta contentdata análisis from literatura. STEPS TO CONSIDER WHEN ESTABLISHING CONSTRUCCT VALIDITY Administer the instrument for alll learners, revise any item necccesay, run an apropriates statistical analiysis, administerthe instrument to learners as a pilot test . CONSTRUCTMAP Morepreciseconceptthan construct. Ranges from one extreme to another(fromhightolow,small tolarge,positivetonegative,or strongtoweak). Identifiesthepositionofthe respondentsinthisrange. Representativenessofsampling (questions and ability of respondents). EXAMPLEO FACONSTRUCTMAP:AFFECTIVE LEVELOF AFFECTIVE VARIABLES EXAMPLESOFITEMSIN MEASURINGTEAM WORKING SKILLS 5. Characterisation Learnersvolunteerstodothe groupworks. 4. Organisation Learners are willing to help others,althoughitisnottheir scopeoftask. 3. Valuing Learners respect other team members’opinionwhendoing thediscussion. 2. Responding Learnergivescooperationwhen neededingroupworks. 1. Receiving Learneracceptsthediversityof races and nationalities among groupmembers. EXAMPLEOFACONSTRUCTMAP:PSYCHOMOTOR LEVELOF PSYCHOMOTOR VARIABLES EXAMPLESOFITEMSIN MEASURING DIGITAL SKILLS 7.Origination Learnerscanmodifytheirowndevicesto performbetter. 6.Adaptation Learnerscansolveandtroubleshootthe problemwhileusingthecomputer. 5.ComplexOvertResponse Learnerscanusethecomputercompetently. 4.Mechanism Learners can use the computer independently,butstillmakeminorerrors. 3.GuidedResponses Learnerscanusethecomputer,butstill needguidance. 2.Set Learnersarereadytousethecomputer. 1.Perception Learnerscanobservehowtousecomputer. EXAMPLEOFACONSTRUCTMAP:COGNITIVE LEVELOF COGNITIV E VARIABLES EXAMPLESOFITEMS IN MEASURING THINKINGSKILLS 6. Creating Learners are able to suggest anewmodelorframeworkof learningdigitalcommunity. 5. Evaluating Learners are able to judge the impactofthescenariotowards educationperspective. 4. Analysing Learnerscandifferentiate the factsusingafew theories. 3. Applying Learnerscansolveproblems usingthefactsgiven. 2. Understanding Learnersareabletoexplainthe factsusingtheirownwords. 1. Remembering Learnersonlymemorisethe. Direction of Increasing “X” Learners Learners with high “X” Learners with mid range “X” Learners with low “X” Responses to Item Item response indicate highest level of X Item response indicate higher level of X Item response indicate lower level of X The construct map shows the lower ability students are in line with the lower level of items. This shows that when educators plan to develop an instrument, it Item response indicate lowest level of X Direction of Decreasing “X” is crucial to create an item difficulty thatrepresents learners’ ability. Learners’ ability Learners who engage in level characterisation Learners who engage in level organisation Learners who engage in level valuing Learners who engage in level responding Learners who engage in level receiving Direction of Decreasing“X” MEASURINGCONSTRUCTVALIDITY Unlike content validity, this construct validity can be analysed using statistical analysis. Use Exploratory FactorAnalysis [EFA], Confirmatory FactorAnalysis [CFA] or Unidimensionality to confirm all items are measuring the right construct and the raw variance explained for the latent variables is sufficient. Gap initem map also can show accuracy in construct validity. RELIABILITY The degree to which test scores are consistent over repeated administrations of the same/ equivalent test and therefore considered dependable and repeatable for an individual learner.A test thatproduces highly consistent and stable results (i.e. relative free from random error) is said to be highly reliable. TYPESOFRELIABILITY Test-retest demonstrates the stability of a measure over time 01 Internal consistency most of the items within a rating scale of a concept show consistency of scoring. Inter-rater the extent to which two or more independent raters are consistent in observing, recording and scoring data (should be 70% or higher agreement) 04 Intra-rater relies on one rater to rate an object or event twice (70% or higher of agreement) FACTORSAFFECTING VALIDITYANDHOWTO INCREASEVALIDITY? FACTORS AFFECTING VALIDITY HOWTO INCREASE VALIDITY? 1. Inaccuracy of items in measuringtheoutcomes 1. Vetting session to get reviewsfromtheexpert. 2. Pooritemsdevelopment 2. Followtheformatandtips indevelopinggooditems. 3. Unclearinstructions 3. Do pilot testing to measuretheusabilityof thetest. 4. Interveningevents 4. Controltheinternalthreats validityfactors. 5. Itemsdifficultyisnot suitableforthelearners 5. Create a construct map toensurethereisanitem thatrepresentslearners ability. FACTORS AFFECTING RELIABILIT Y HOWTOINCREASERELIABILITY? 1. TestLength 1. Thetestlengthshouldbeappropriate withtestdifficulty. 2. Test retest interval 2. Suggesteddurationisbetween3 weeksto2months. 3. Variability of scores 3. Doconstructmaptoensuretheitems aresuitablewithlearners’ability. 4. Guessing 4. Penalisetheguessinganswers.You alsocandetecteitherthelearnersare guessing or not using the statistical analysis named guessing analysis andpersonfitanalysis. 5. Inconsistency score from different raters 5. Appointtheratertomarkcertain questionsforalllearners(Thisalways happen when you have more than onesectionandhavemorethanone lecturer). CONCLUSION Coming back to the issue of validity and reliability in assessment, there is a need for educators to put an effort to ensurethattheitemsintheformofquestionsorinstructions arenotonlyclearbutalsoabletomeasurewhatitisintended tomeasurebasedontherelatedlearningoutcomes. Establishingvalidityandreliabilityofinstrumentscan provide educators with some indications of the quality of the measuring tools being used. Valid and reliable instruments enabletheeducatorstocontinuouslyusethemeasuringtools withoutreservation. Reliablenot valid Precisenot Accurate Reliableand valid Preciseand Accurate NotReliable butvalid NotPrecisebut Accurate NotReliable butNotvalid NotPrecisebut NotAccurate 94

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