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Evolution plus Unit3
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Evolution plus 3 Unit 4Owls, such as the young snowy owls on the previous page, have for centuries been symbols of both wisdom and mystery. To many cultures their piercing eyes have conveyed a look of intelligence. Their silent flight through darkened landscapes in search of prey has projected an air of power or wonder. For this chapter and this book, owls are an engaging example of a living organism from the world of biologyâthe study of life. BIOLOGY AND YOU Living in a small town, in the country, or at the edge of the suburbs, one may be lucky enough to hear an owl's hooting. This experience can lead to questions about where the bird lives, what it hunts, and how it finds its prey on dark, moonless nights. Biology, or the study of life, offers an organized and scientific framework for posing and answering such questions about the natural world. Biologists study questions about how living things work, how they interact with the environment, and how they change over time. Biologists study many different kinds of living things ranging from tiny organisms, such as bacteria, to very large organisms, such as elephants. Each day, biologists investigate subjects that affect you and the way you live. For example, biologists determine which foods are healthy. As shown in Figure 1-1, everyone is affected by this impor- tant topic. Biologists also study how much a person should exer- cise and how one can avoid getting sick. Biologists also study what CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE The world is filled with familiar objects, such as tables, rocks, plants, pets, and automobiles. Which of these objects are living or were once living? What are the criteria for assigning something to the living world or the nonliving world? Biologists have established that living things share seven characteristics of life. These characteristics are organization and the presence of one or more cells, response to a stimulus (plural, stimuli), homeostasis, metabolism, growth and development, reproduction, and change through time. Organization and Cells Organization is the high degree of order within an organismâs internal and external parts and in its interactions with the living world. For example, compare an owl to a rock. The rock has a spe- cific shape, but that shape is usually irregular. Furthermore, differ- ent rocks, even rocks of the same type, are likely to have different shapes and sizes. In contrast, the owl is an amazingly organized individual, as shown in Figure 1-2. Owls of the same species have the same body parts arranged in nearly the same way and interact with the environment in the same way. Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. ORGANISM (Barn Owl) ORGAN (Owlâs Ear) TISSUE (Nervous Tissue Within the Ear) CELL (Nerve Cell) your air, land, and fAll living organisms, whether made up of one cell or many cells, have some degree of organization. A cell is the smallest unit that can perform all lifeâs processes. Some organisms, such as bacteria, are made up of one cell and are called unicellular (YOON-uh-SEL-yoo-luhr) organisms. Other organisms, such as humans or trees, are made up of multiple cells and are called multicellular (MUHL-ti-SEL-yoo-luhr) organisms. Complex multicellular organisms have the level of orga- nization shown in Figure 1-2. In the highest level, the organism is made up of organ systems, or groups of specialized parts that carry out a certain function in the organism. For example, an owlâs ner- vous system is made up of a brain, sense organs, nerve cells, and other parts that sense and respond to the owlâs surroundings. Organ systems are made up of organs. Organs are structures that carry out specialized jobs within an organ system. An owlâs ear is an organ that allows the owl to hear. All organs are made up of tissues. Tissues are groups of cells that have similar abilities and that allow the organ to function. For example, nervous tissue in the ear allows the ear to detect sound. Tissues are made up of cells. A cell must be covered by a membrane, contain all genetic information necessary for replication, and be able to carry out all cell functions. Within each cell are organelles. Organelles are tiny structures that carry out functions necessary for the cell to stay alive. Organelles contain biological molecules, the chemical compounds that provide physical structure and that bring about movement, energy use, and other cellular functions. All biological molecules are made up of atoms. Atoms are the simplest particle of an ele- ment that retains all the properties of a certain element. Response to Stimuli Another characteristic of life is that an organism can respond to a stimulusâa physical or chemical change in the internal or external environment. For example, an owl dilates its pupils to keep the level of light entering the eye constant. Organisms must be able to respond and react to changes in their environment to stay alive. ORGANELLE (Mitochondrion) BIOLOGICAL MOLECULE (Phospholipid) ATOM (Oxygen) cell from the Latin, cella meaning âsmall room,â or âhutâ Word Roots and Origins www.scilinks.org Topic: Characteristics of Life Keyword: HM60257 mb06se_bios01.qxd 5/18/07 10:37 AM Page 7 8 CHAPTER 1 Homeostasis All living things, from single cells to entire organisms, have mecha- nisms that allow them to maintain stable internal conditions. Without these mechanisms, organisms can die. For example, a cellâs water content is closely controlled by the taking in or releas- ing of water. A cell that takes in too much water will rupture and die. A cell that doesnât get enough water will also shrivel and die. Homeostasis (HOH-mee-OH-STAY-sis) is the maintenance of a stable level of internal conditions even though environmental conditions are constantly changing. Organisms have regulatory systems that maintain internal conditions, such as temperature, water content, and uptake of nutrients by the cell. In fact, multi- cellular organisms usually have more than one way of maintain- ing important aspects of their internal environment. For example, an owlâs temperature is maintained at about 40°C (104°F). To keep a constant temperature, an owlâs cells burn fuel to produce body heat. In addition, an owlâs feathers can fluff up in cold weather. In this way, they trap an insulating layer of air next to the birdâs body to maintain its body temperature. Metabolism Living organisms use energy to power all the life processes, such as repair, movement, and growth. This energy use depends on metabolism (muh-TAB-uh-LIZ-uhm). Metabolism is the sum of all the chemical reactions that take in and transform energy and materials from the environment. For example, plants, algae, and some bacteria use the sunâs energy to generate sugar molecules during a process called photosynthesis. Some organisms depend on obtaining food energy from other organisms. For instance, an owlâs metabolism allows the owl to extract and modify the chemi- cals trapped in its nightly prey and use them as energy to fuel activities and growth. Growth and Development All living things grow and increase in size. Some nonliving things, such as crystals or icicles, grow by accumulating more of the same material of which they are made. In contrast, the growth of living things results from the division and enlargement of cells. Cell division is the formation of two new cells from an existing cell, as shown in Figure 1-3. In unicellular organisms, the primary change that occurs following cell division is cell enlargement. In multi- cellular life, however, organisms mature through cell division, cell enlargement, and development. Development is the process by which an organism becomes a mature adult. Development involves cell division and cell differen- tiation, or specialization. As a result of development, an adult organism is composed of many cells specialized for different func- tions, such as carrying oxygen in the blood or hearing. In fact, the human body is composed of trillions of specialized cells, all of which originated from a single cell, the fertilized egg. This unicellular organism, Escherichia coli, inhabits the human intestines. E. coli reproduces by means of cell division, during which the original cell splits into two identical offspring cells. FIGURE 1-3 Observing Homeostasis Materials 500 mL beakers (3), wax pen, tap water, thermometer, ice, hot water, goldfish, small dip net, watch or clock with a second hand Procedure 1. Use a wax pen to label three 500 mL beakers as follows: 27°C (80°F), 20°C (68°F), 10°C (50°F). Put 250 mL of tap water in each beaker. Use hot water or ice to adjust the tem- perature of the water in each beaker to match the temperature on the label. 2. Put the goldfish in the beaker of 27°C water. Record the number of times the gills move in 1 minute. 3. Move the goldfish to the beaker of 20°C water. Repeat observations. Move the goldfish to the beaker of 10°C. Repeat observations. Analysis What happens to the rate at which gills move when the temp- erature changes? Why? How do gills help fish maintain homeostasis? Quick Lab mb06se_bios01.qxd 5/18/07 10:37 AM Page 8 THE SCIENCE OF LIFE 9 Reproduction All organisms produce new organisms like themselves in a process called reproduction. Reproduction, unlike other characteristics, is not essential to the survival of an individual organism. However, because no organism lives forever, reproduction is essential for the continuation of a species. Glass frogs, as shown in Figure 1-4, lay many eggs in their lifetime. However, only a few of the frogsâ off- spring reach adulthood and successfully reproduce. During reproduction, organisms transmit hereditary informa- tion to their offspring. Hereditary information is encoded in a large molecule called deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA. A short segment of DNA that contains the instructions for a single trait of an organism is called a gene. DNA is like a large library. It contains all the booksâgenesâthat the cell will ever need for making all the struc- tures and chemicals necessary for life. Hereditary information is transferred to offspring during two kinds of reproduction. In sexual reproduction, hereditary information recombines from two organisms of the same species. The resulting offspring are similar but not identical to their parents. For example, a male frogâs sperm can fertilize a femaleâs egg and form a single fer- tilized egg cell. The fertilized egg then develops into a new frog. In asexual reproduction, hereditary information from different organisms is not combined; thus the original organism and the new organism are genetically the same. A bacterium, for example, reproduces asexually when it splits into two identical cells. Change Through Time Although individual organisms experience many changes during their lifetime, their basic genetic characteristics do not change. However, populations of living organisms evolve or change through time. The ability of populations of organisms to change over time is important for survival in a changing world. This factor is also impor- tant in explaining the diversity of life-forms we see on Earth today. 1. How does biology affect a personâs daily life? 2. How does biology affect society? 3. Name the characteristics shared by living things. 4. Summarize the hierarchy of organization found in complex multicellular organisms. 5. What are the different functions of homeostasis and metabolism in living organisms? 6. How does the growth among living and nonliv- ing things differ? 7. Why is reproduction an important characteristic of life? CRITICAL THINKING 8. Applying Information Crystals of salt grow and are highly organized. Why donât biologists con- sider them to be alive? 9. Analyzing Models When a scientist designs a space probe to detect life on a distant planet, what kinds of things should it measure? 10. Making Comparisons Both cells and organisms share the characteristics of life. How are cells and organismsood supply will be like in the near future.EVOLUTION OF LIFE Individual organisms change during their lifetime, but their basic genetic characteristics do not change. However, populations of liv- ing organisms do change through time, or evolve. Evolution, or descent with modification, is the process in which the inherited characteristics within populations change over generations, such that genetically distinct populations and new species can develop. Evolution as a theme in biology helps us understand how the various branches of the âtree of lifeâ came into existence and have changed over time. It also explains how organisms alive today are related to those that lived in the past. Finally, it helps us understand the mechanisms that underlie the way organisms look and behave. Natural Selection The ability of populations of organisms to change over time is important for survival in a changing world. According to the theory of evolution by natural selection, organisms that have certain favorable traits are better able to survive and reproduce success- fully than organisms that lack these traits. One product of natural selection is the adaptation of organisms to their environment. Adaptations are traits that improve an indi- vidualâs ability to survive and reproduce. For example, rabbits with white fur and short ears in a snowy place, such as the one in Figure 1-7a, may avoid predators and frostbitten ears more often than those with dark fur and long ears. Thus, the next generation of rabbits will have a greater percentage of animals carrying the genes for white fur and short ears. In contrast, the brown, long- eared rabbit, as shown in Figure 1-7b, would survive and reproduce more successfully in a hot desert environment. The survival and reproductive success of organisms with favor- able traits cause a change in populations of organisms over gener- ations. This descent with modification is an important factor in explaining the diversity of organisms we see on Earth today. 1. Name three unifying themes found in biology. 2. How is the unity and diversity in the living world represented? 3. Identify the three domains and the kingdoms found in each domain. 4. How are organisms interdependent? 5. Describe why evolution is important in explain- ing the diversity of life. 6. Distinguish between evolution and natural selection. CRITICAL THINKING 7. Applying Information Assign the various top- pings you put on pizza to the appropriate domains and kingdoms of life. 8. Analyzing Graphics According to the âtreeâ in Figure 1-5, which of these pairs are more closely related: Archaea:Bacteria or Archaea:Eukarya? 9. Making Hypotheses Fossil evidence shows that bats descended from shrewlike organisms that could not fly. Write a hypothesis for how natural selection might have led to flying bats. SECTION 2 REVIEW (a) This short-eared arctic hare, Lepus arcticus, is hidden from predators and protected from frostbite in a snowy environment. (b) The mottled brown coats of desert rabbits blend in with the dirt and dry grasses, and their long ears help them radiate excess heat and thus avoid overheating. FIGURE 1-7 (a) (b) Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. THE SCIENCE OF LIFE 13 TH E STUDY OF BIOLOGY Curiosity leads us to ask questions about life. Science provides a way of answering such questions about the natural world. Science is a systematic method that involves forming and testing hypotheses. More importantly, science relies on evidence, not beliefs, for drawing conclusions. SCIENCE AS A PROCESS Science is characterized by an organized approach, called the scientific method, to learn how the natural world works. The methods of science are based on two important principles. The first principle is that events in the natural world have natural causes. For example, the ancient Greeks believed that lightning and thunder occurred because a supernatural god Zeus hurled thunderbolts from the heavens. By contrast, a scientist considers lightning and thunder to result from electric charges in the atmos- phere. When trying to solve a puzzle from nature, all scientists, such as the one in Figure 1-8, accept that there is a natural cause to solve that puzzle. A second principle of science is uniformity. Uniformity is the idea that the fundamental laws of nature operate the same way at all places and at all times. For example, scientists assume that the law of gravity works the same way on Mars as it does on Earth. Steps of the Scientific Method Although there is no single method for doing science, scientific studies involve a series of common steps. 1. The process of science begins with an observation. An observation is the act of perceiving a natural occurrence that causes someone to pose a question. 2. One tries to answer the question by forming hypotheses (singular, hypothesis). A hypothesis is a proposed explanation for the way a particular aspect of the natural world functions. 3. A prediction is a statement that forecasts what would happen in a test situation if the hypothesis were true. A prediction is recorded for each hypothesis. 4. An experiment is used to test a hypothesis and its predictions. 5. Once the experiment has been concluded, the data are analyzed and used to draw conclusions. 6. After the data have been analyzed, the data and conclusions are communicated to scientific peers and to the public. This way oth- ers can verify, reject, or modify the researcherâs conclusions. SECTION 3 OBJECTIVES â Outline the main steps in the scientific method. â Summarize how observations are used to form hypotheses. â List the elements of a controlled experiment. â Describe how scientists use data to draw conclusions. â Compare a scientific hypothesis and a scientific theory. â State how communication in science helps prevent dishonesty and bias. VOCABULARY scientific method observation hypothesis prediction experiment control group experimental group independent variable dependent variable theory peer review All researchers, such as the one releasing an owl above, use the scientific method to answer the questions they have about nature. FIGURE 1-8 Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. 14 CHAPTER 1 OBSERVING AND ASKING QUESTIONS The scientific method generally begins with an unexplained observa- tion about nature. For example, people have noticed for thousands of years that owls can catch prey in near total darkness. As shown in steps and of Figure 1-9, an observation may then raise ques- tions. The owl observation raises the question: How does an owl detect prey in the dark? FORMING A HYPOTHESIS After stating a question, a biologist lists possible answers to a sci- entific questionâhypotheses. Good hypotheses answer a question and are testable in the natural world. For example, as shown in step Figure 1-9, there are several possible hypotheses for the question of how owls hunt at night: (a) owls hunt by keen vision in the dark; (b) owls hunt by superb hearing; or (c) owls hunt by detecting the preyâs body heat. Predicting To test a hypothesis, scientists make a prediction that logically fol- lows from the hypothesis. A prediction is what is expected to hap- pen if each hypothesis were true. For example, if hypothesis (a) is true, (owls hunt by keen night vision) then one can predict that the owl will pounce only on the mouse in either a light or a dark room. If hypothesis (b) is true (owls hunt by hearing), then one can pre- dict that in a lighted room, the owl will pounce closer to the mouseâs head. But, in a dark room, the owl should pounce closer to a rustling leaf attached to the mouse. Finally, if hypothesis (c) is true (owls hunt by sensing body heat), then an owl would strike only the prey no matter the room conditions, because owls hunt by detecting the preyâs body heat. 3 1 2 Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. A scientific study includes observations, questions, hypotheses, predictions, experiments, data analysis, and conclu- sions. A biologist can use the scientific method to set up an experiment to learn how an owl captures prey at night. FIGURE 1-9 1 OBSERVATION Owls capture prey on dark nights. 2 QUESTION How do owls detect prey on dark nights? 3 HYPOTHESES a) Owls hunt in the dark by vision. b) Owls hunt in the dark by hearing. c) Owls hunt in the dark by sensing body heat. THE SCIENCE OF LIFE 15 Notice that these predictions make it difficult to distinguish be- tween the vision and body heat hypotheses. The reason is that both hypotheses predict that the owl could grab the mouse in a dark room. Also, these three hypotheses do not eliminate all other factors that could influence how the owl finds its prey. However, testing predictions can allow one to begin rejecting hypotheses and thus to get closer to determining the answer(s) to a question. DESIGNING AN EXPERIMENT Biologists often test hypotheses by setting up an experiment. Step in Figure 1-9 outlines an experiment to test the hypotheses about how an owl hunts at night. First, experimenters set up a room with an owl perch high on one side and a small trap door on the other side for releasing mice. Then, they tied a leaf to each mouseâs tail with a string and released each mouse into the room. Next, each mouse ran silently across the room, but the leaf trailed behind, making a rustling noise. During half of the trials, the lights were on. During the other half, the room was dark. Technicians videotaped all the action in the chamber with an infrared light, which owls cannot see. The researchers then viewed the videos and measured the position of the owlâs strike relative to each mouseâs head. Performing the Experiment Many scientists use a controlled experiment to test their hypotheses. A controlled experiment compares an experimental group and a control group and only has one variable. The control group pro- vides a normal standard against which the biologist can compare results of the experimental group. The experimental group is iden- tical to the control group except for one factor, the independent variable. The experimenter manipulates the independent variable, sometimes called the manipulated variable. 4 4 EXPERIMENT 5 DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS Measure and compare the distance from the owlâs strike to the mouse and to the leaf in light and dark. 6 CONCLUSION Data supported the hearing hypothesis: Owls hunt in the dark by hearing. prey Test predictions of the three hypotheses. Control: In the light Experimental: In the dark 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Predicting Results Materials 2 Petri dishes with agar, cellophane tape, wax pen Procedure 1. Open one of the Petri dishes, and streak your finger across the surface of the agar. 2. Replace the lid, and seal it with the tape. Label this Petri dish with your name and a number 1. 3. Seal the second Petri dish with- out removing the lid. Label this Petri dish with your name and the number 2. 4. Write a prediction about what will happen in each dish. Store your dishes as your teacher directs. Record your observations. Follow your teacherâs directions for disposal of your dishes. Analysis Was your prediction accurate? What evidence can you cite to support your prediction? If you did not obtain the results you predicted, would you change your testing method or your prediction? Explain. Evaluate the importance of obtaining a result that does not support your prediction. Quick Lab mb06se_bios03.qxd 5/18/07 10:40 AM Page 15 16 CHAPTER 1 The independent variable in the owl experiment is the presence or absence of light. In the owl experiment, the control group hunts in the light, and the experimental group hunts in the dark. In addi- tion to varying the independent variable, a scientist observes or measures another factor called the dependent variable, or respond- ing variable, because it is affected by the independent variable. In the owl experiment, the dependent variable is distance from the owlâs strike to the mouseâs head. Testing the Experiment Some controlled experiments are conducted âblind.â In other words, the biologist who scores the results is unaware of whether a given subject is part of the experimental or control group. This factor helps eliminate experimenter bias. Experiments should also be repeated, because living systems are variable. Moreover, scien- tists must collect enough data to find meaningful results. COLLECTING AND ANALYZING DATA Most experiments measure a variableâthe dependent variable. This measurement provides quantitative data, data measured in numbers. For example, in the experiment above, scientists mea- sured the distance of an owlâs strike from the preyâs head in cen- timeters, as shown in step of Figure 1-9. An eventâs duration in milliseconds is also an example of quantitative data. Biologists usually score the results of an experiment by using one of their senses. They might see or hear the results of an experiment. Scientists also extend their senses with a micro- scope for tiny objects or a microphone for soft sounds. In the owl experiment, biologists extended their vision with infrared cameras. Analyzing and Comparing Data After collecting data from a field study or an experiment and then organizing it, biologists then analyze the data. In analyzing data, the goal is to determine whether the data are reliable, and whether they support or fail to support the predictions of the hypothesis. To do so, scientists may use statistics to help determine relation- ships between the variables involved. They can then compare their data with other data that were obtained in other similar studies. It is also important at this time to determine possible sources of error in the experiment just per- formed. Scientists usually display their data in tables or graphs when analyzing it. For the owl study, biologists could have made a bar graph such as the one in Figure 1-10, which shows the average distance from the owlâs strike relative to the mouseâs head or the leaf in the light and in the dark. 5 5 0 10 15 20 25 In the light In the dark Average distance from strike (cm) Distance Between Owl Strike and a Mouse or From a Leaf Attached to Mouse 30 Mouse Leaf Mouse Leaf The data below are hypothetical results that might occur from the described owl experiment.The independent variable is the darkness of the room, and the dependent variable is how far the owl struck from the mouseâs head.The data show that the owl strikes more accurately at the mouse in the light but strikes more accurately at the leaf in the dark. FIGURE 1-10 Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. THE SCIENCE OF LIFE 17 DRAWING CONCLUSIONS Biologists analyze their tables, graphs, and charts to draw conclu- sions about whether or not a hypothesis is supported, as shown in step of Figure 1-9. The hypothetical owl data show that in the light, owls struck with greater accuracy at the mouse than at the leaf, but in the dark, owls struck with greater accuracy at the leaf than the mouse. Thus, the findings support the hearing hypothe- sis, but not the vision hypothesis. An experiment can only disprove, not prove, a hypothesis. For example, one cannot conclude from the results that the hearing hypothesis is proven to be true. Perhaps the owl uses an unknown smell to strike at the mouse. One can only reject the vision hypothe- sis because it did not predict the results of the experiment correctly. Acceptance of a hypothesis is always tentative in science. The scientific community revises its understanding of phenomena, based on new data. Having ruled out one hypothesis, a biologist will devise more tests to try to rule out any remaining hypotheses. Making Inferences Scientists often draw inferences from data gathered during a field study or experiment. An inference (IN-fuhr-uhns) is a conclusion made on the basis of facts and previous knowledge rather than on direct observations. Unlike a hypothesis, an inference is not directly testable. In the owl study, it is inferred that the owl detects prey from a distance rather than by direct touch. Applying Results and Building Models As shown in Figure 1-11, scientists often apply their findings to solve practical problems. They also build models to represent or describe things. For example in 1953, James Watson and Francis Crick used cardboard balls and wire bars to build physical models of atoms in an attempt to understand the structure of DNA. Mathematical models are sets of equations that describe how dif- ferent measurable items interact in a system. The experimenter can adjust variables to better model the real-world data. CONSTRUCTING A THEORY When a set of related hypotheses is confirmed to be true many times, and it can explain a great amount of data, scientists often reclassify it as a theory. Some examples include the quantum the- ory, the cell theory, or the theory of evolution. People commonly use the word âtheoryâ in a different way than scientists use the word. People may say âItâs just a theoryâ suggesting that an idea is untested, but scientists view a theory as a highly tested, generally accepted principle that explains a vast number of observations and experimental data. 6 Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. Biologists often apply their knowledge of the natural world to practical problems. Studies on the owlâs keen ability to locate sounds in space despite background noise are helping biotechnologists and bioengineers develop better solutions for people with impaired hearing, such as the people shown in this picture. FIGURE 1-11 18 CHAPTER 1 COMMUNICATING IDEAS An essential aspect of scientific research is scientists working together. Scientists often work together in research teams or sim- ply share research results with other scientists. This is done by publishing findings in scientific journals or presenting them at sci- entific meetings, as shown in Figure 1-12. Sharing information allows others working independently to verify findings or to con- tinue work on established results. For example, Roger Payne pub- lished the results of his owl experiments in a journal in 1971. Then, other biologists could repeat it for verification or use it to study the mechanisms introduced by the paper. With the growing impor- tance of science in solving societal issues, it is becoming increas- ingly vital for scientists to be able to communicate with the public at large. Publishing a Paper Scientists submit research papers to scientific journals for publica- tion. A typical research paper has four sections. First, the Introduction poses the problem and hypotheses to be investigated. Next, the Materials and Methods describe how researchers proceeded with the experiment. Third, the Results state the findings the experiment presented, and finally, the Discussion gives the significance of the experiment and future directions the scientists will take. Job Description Forensic biolo- gists are scientists who study biological materials to investigate potential crimes and other legal issues against humans and animals. Forensic scientists have knowledge in areas of biology, such as DNA and blood pattern analysis, and work in private sector and public laboratories. Focus On a Forensic Biologist As a law enforcement forensic specialist for the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, Beverly Villarreal assists the game warden in investigations of fish and wildlife violations, such as illegal hunting and fishing. Villarreal analyzes blood and tissue samples to identify species of animals such as fish, birds, and reptiles. Her work helps game wardens as they enforce state laws regarding hunting and fishing. Most people think of forensic scientists as the glamorous crime investigators on TV, but according to Villarreal real forensic scientists âspend a great deal of time at a lab bench running analysis after analysis.â Many of the methods used in animal forensics, such as DNA sequenc- ing, are also used in human forensics. Education and Skills âą High schoolâthree years of science courses and four years of math courses. âą Collegeâbachelor of science in biol- ogy, including course work in zoology and genetics, plus experience in per- forming DNA analyses. âą Skillsâpatience, attention to detail, and ability to use fine tools. Careers in BIOLOGY Forensic Biologist For more about careers, visit go.hrw.com and type in the keyword HM6 Careers. www.scilinks.org Topic: Scientific Investigations Keyword: HM61358 mb06se_bios03.qxd 5/18/07 10:40 AM Page 18 THE SCIENCE OF LIFE 19 1. What two principles make the scientific method a unique process? 2. Define the roles of observations and hypotheses in science. 3. Summarize the parts of a controlled experiment. 4. Summarize how we make conclusions about the results of an experiment. 5. Why is the phrase, âitâs just a theoryâ misleading? 6. Give another example of a conflict of interest. CRITICAL THINKING 7. Making Hypotheses On a nocturnal owlâs skull, one ear points up, and the other ear points down. Suggest a hypothesis for this observation. 8. Designing Experiments Design an experiment to establish if owls hunt by keen sight or hunt by heat seeking. 9. Calculating Information What was the average distance between the owlâs strike and the mouse if the recorded differences in this experiment were 25, 22, 19, 19, and 15? SECTION 3 REVIEW After scientists submit their papers to a scientific journal, the editors of that journal will send the paper out for peer review. In a peer review, scientists who are experts in the field anonymously read and critique that research paper. They determine if a paper pro- vides enough information so that the experiment can be duplicated and if the author used good experimental controls and reached an accurate conclusion. They also check if the paper is written clearly enough for broad understanding. Careful analysis of each otherâs research by fellow scientists is essential to making scientific progress and preventing scientific dishonesty. HONESTY AND BIAS The scientific community depends on both honesty and good sci- ence. While designing new studies, experimenters must be very careful to prevent previous ideas and biases from tainting both the experimental process and the conclusions. Scientists have to keep in mind that they are always trying to disprove their favorite ideas. Scientists repeat experiments to verify previous findings. This allows for science to have a method for self-correction and it also keeps researchers honest and credible to their peers in the field. Conflict of Interest For most scientists, maintaining a good reputation for collecting and presenting valid data is more important than temporary prestige or income. So, scientists try to avoid any potential conflicts of interest. For example, a scientist who owns a biotechnology company and manufactures a drug would not be the best researcher to critically test that drugâs safety and effectiveness. To avoid this potential con- flict of interest, the scientist allows an unaffected party, such as a research group, to test the drugâs effectiveness. The threat of a potential scandal based on misleading data or conclusions is a pow- erful force in science that helps keep scientists honest and fair. Scientists present their experiments in various forms. The scientists above are presenting their work in the form of a poster at a scientific meeting. FIGURE 1-12 Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. The Internet can provide a wealth of scientific information for a report, but the information may not always be credible or accurate. You can use the methods above to check the accuracy and credibility of your sources. SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY SOCIETY SCIENCE ON THE INTERNET: A New Information Age I n the past, students research- ing a science topic would typ- ically begin their research by visiting a library to use printed reference materials, such as encyclopedias. Today, most stu- dents research topics by using a computer and searching for information on the Internet. The Internet can provide students with a wealth of infor- mation. But which Web sites have accurate information, and which Web sites do not? Checking Web Addresses Students should use the Web address, or URL, to establish the Web siteâs credibility. Usually, the domain name can suggest who has published the Web site. Web sites can be pub- lished by governmental agen- cies (ends in âdot govâ or .gov), by educational institutions (ends in âdot eduâ or .edu), by organizations (ends in âdot orgâ or .org), or by commercial businesses (ends in âdot comâ or .com). Government Web sites are usually reliable. Examples of credible governmental Web sites are the National Institutes of Health (NIH) and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). University and medical school sites are also reliable sources of information. Many organiza- tions that research and teach the public about specific diseases and conditions can also provide reliable information. Examples of such organizations are the American Cancer Society and the American Heart Association. Evaluating Web Sites The credibility of the author of the Web site should also be checked. Make sure the author is not trying to sell anything and is established in his or her field. For example, a health Web siteâs author should be a med- ical professional. It is also important to check the date that the information was posted on the Web to ensure that the information is current. Also, the Web site should provide ref- erences from valid sources, such as scientific journals or govern- ment publications. Finally, the student should always double-check informa- tion between several reliable Web sites. If two or three reliable sites provide the same informa- tion, the student can feel confi- dent in using that information. Web Sites for Students The Internet Connect boxes in this textbook have all been reviewed by professionals at the National Science Teachers Association (NSTA). Students can trust that these sites are reliable sources for science- or health-related topics. REVIEW 1. Which types of Web addresses are the most reliable? 2. List four important features to evaluate when using a Web site for research. 3. Supporting Reasoned Opinions Why do you think a Web site that is advertising a product may not offer accurate information? REVIEW 20 www.scilinks.org Topic: Using the Internet Keyword: HM61589 mb06se_biosts.qxd 5/18/07 10:42 AM Page 20 TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES With proper equipment and good methods, biologists can see, manipulate, and understand the natural world in new ways. Microscopes are one of many useful tools used to unlock natureâs biological secrets. MICROSCOPES AS TOOLS Tools are objects used to improve the performance of a task. Microscopes are tools that extend human vision by making enlarged images of objects. Biologists use microscopes to study organisms, cells, cell parts, and molecules. Microscopes reveal details that otherwise might be difficult or impossible to see. Light Microscopes To see small organisms and cells, biologists typically use a light microscope, such as the one shown in Figure 1-13. A compound light microscope is a microscope that shines light through a spec- imen and has two lenses to magnify an image. To use this micro- scope, one first mounts the specimen to be viewed on a glass slide. The specimen must be thin enough for light to pass through it. For tiny pond organisms, such as the single-celled paramecium, light passing through the organism is not a problem. For thick objects, such as plant stems, biologists must cut thin slices for viewing. There are four major parts of a compound light microscope. For further description of the parts of a micro- scope, see the Appendix. 1. Eyepiece The eyepiece (ocular (AHK-yoo-luhr) lens) magnifies the image, usually 10 times. 2. Objective Lens Light passes through the specimen and then through the objective lens, which is located directly above the specimen. The objective lens enlarges the image of the specimen. Scientists sometimes use stains to make the image easier to see. 3. Stage The stage is a platform that supports a slide holding the specimen. The slide is placed over the opening in the stage of the microscope. 4. Light Source The light source is a light bulb that provides light for viewing the image. It can be either light reflected with a mirror or an incandescent light from a small lamp. SECTION 4 OBJECTIVES â List the function of each of the major parts of a compound light microscope. â Compare two kinds of electron microscopes. â Describe the importance of having the SI system of measurement. â State some examples of good laboratory practice. VOCABULARY compound light microscope eyepiece (ocular lens) objective lens stage light source magnification nosepiece resolution scanning electron microscope transmission electron microscope metric system base unit Compound light microscopes open the human eye to an interesting world including tiny pond organisms, healthy and diseased cells, and the functioning of cell parts. FIGURE 1-13 Objective lens Eyepiece (ocular lens) Stage Light THE SCIENCE OF LIFE 21 Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. 22 CHAPTER 1 Magnification and Resolution Microscopes vary in powers of magnification and resolution. Magnification is the increase of an objectâs apparent size. Revolving the nosepiece, the structure that holds the set of objective lens, rotates these lenses into place above the specimen. In a typical com- pound light microscope, the most powerful objective lens produces an image up to 100 times (100) the specimenâs actual size. The degree of enlargement is called the power of magnification of the lens. The standard ocular lens magnifies a specimen 10 times (10). To compute the power of magnification of a microscope, the power of magnification of the strongest objective lens (in this case, 100) is multiplied by the power of magnification of the ocular lens (10). The result is a total power of magnification of 1000. Resolution (REZ-uh-LOO-shuhn) is the power to show details clearly in an image. The physical properties of light limit the ability of light microscopes to resolve images, as shown in Figure 1-14a. At pow- ers of magnification beyond about 2,000, the image of the speci- men becomes fuzzy. For this reason, scientists use other microscopes to view very small cellsGUIDELINES ON THE ESTABLISHMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION OF THE RESULTS-BASED PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM IN THE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION I. Rationale 1. The Civil Service Commission (CSC), through the issuance of Memorandum Circular (MC) No. 06, series of 2012, sets the guidelines on the establishment and implementation of the Strategic Performance Management System (SPMS) in all government agencies. The SPMS gives emphasis to the strategic alignment of the agencyâs thrusts with the day-to-day operation of the units and individual personnel within the organization. It focuses on measures of performance vis-a-vis the targeted milestones, and provides a credible and verifiable basis for assessing the organizational outcomes and the collective performance of the government employees. 2. As a learner-centered institution, the Department of Education (DepEd) is committed to continuously improve itself to better serve the Filipino learners and the community. The adoption of the SPMS in DepEd strengthens the culture of performance and accountability in the agency, with the DepEdâs mandate, vision and mission at its core. 3. There is a need to concretize the linkage between the organizational thrusts and the performance management system. It is important to ensure organizational effectiveness and track individual improvement and efficiency by cascading the institutional accountabilities to the various levels, units and individual personnel, as anchored on the establishment of a rational and factual basis for performance targets and measures. Finally, it is necessary to link the SPMS with other systems relating to human resources and to ensure adherence to the principle of performance-based tenure and incentives. 4. In view of the above, this Order aims to adopt the SPMS as the Results-based Performance Management System (RPMS). II. Scope of Policy 5. This DepEd Order provides for the establishment and implementation of the RPMS in all DepEd schools and offices, covering all officials and employees, school-based and non school-based, in the Department holding regular plantilla positions. It stipulates the specific mechanisms, criteria and processes for the performance target setting, monitoring, evaluation and development planning. IV. Policy Statement 9. The DepEd hereby sets the guidelines on the establishment and implementation of the Results-based Performance Management System (RPMS) in the Department, stipulating the strategies, methods, tools and rewards for assessing the accomplishments vis-a-vis the commitments. This will be used for measuring and rewarding higher levels of performance of the various units and development planning of all personnel in all levels. 10. For non school-based personnel, the RPMS shall provide for an objective and verifiable basis for rating and ranking the performance of units and individual personnel in view of the granting of the Performance-Based Bonus (PBB) starting 2015. 11. For school-based personnel, the RPMS shall be used only as an appraisal tool, which shall be the basis for training and development. The granting of PBB shall be governed by the existing PBB guidelines. 12. The Department shall adopt the RPMS framework shown in Annex B. 13. The DepEd RPMS shall follow the four-stage performance management system cycle as prescribed by the CSC: i. Performance planning and commitment (Phase I); ii. Performance monitoring and coaching (Phase II); iii. Performance review and evaluation (Phase III); and iv. Performance rewarding and development planning (Phase IV). V. Performance Cycle/Process 14. The RPMS shall align the performance targets and accomplishments with the Departmentâs mandate, vision, mission and strategic goals. It shall ensure 100% results orientation vis-a-vis the planned targets. On the other hand, the rateeâs demonstration of the required competencies shall be monitored for developmental purposes only. 15. The RPMS cycle shall cover performance for one whole year. All school-based personnel shall follow a performance cycle starting in April of the current year and ending in March of the following year; while non school-based personnel shall follow a performance cycle starting in January and ending in December. Annexes C and D illustrate the performance cycles which shall apply to school-based and non school-based personnel, respectively. 16. The performance planning and commitment shall be done prior to the beginning of the performance cycle; while the performance monitoring and coaching shall take place immediately after Phase I, and continue throughout the performance cycle. The performance review and evaluation, as well as the performance rewarding and development planning shall be done at the end of the performance cycle. A. Phase I: Performance Planning and Commitment 17. The performance planning and commitment shall be done prior to the start of the performance cycle where the rater meets with the ratee to discuss and agree on the following: i. Office KRAs, Objectives and Performance Indicators as anchored to the overall organizational outcomes; and ii. Individual KRAs, Objectives and Performance Indicators as anchored to the Office KRAs and Objectives. 18. The Office Performance Commitment and Review Form (OPCRF) shall be accomplished by the head of office to reflect the Office KRAs, Objectives and Performance Indicators. The head of office, in coordination with the Planning Office, shall ensure alignment of the office plans and commitments to the overall organizational outcomes. The OPCRF shall be equivalent to the IPCRF of the head of office. A sample of the filled out OPCRF, including the instructions for accomplishing the form, is shown in Annex E. 19. The Individual Performance Commitment and Review Form (IPCRF) shall be accomplished by the individual personnel to reflect the agreed Individual KRAs, Objectives and Performance Indicators. A sample of the filled out IPCRF, including the instructions for accomplishing the form, is shown in Annex F. 20. Defining the Key Result Areas. The head of office, in coordination with the Planning Office, shall define the office KRAs as anchored on the overall organizational outcomes. The rater and the ratee shall discuss and agree on the break down of the office KRAs into individual KRAs. Three (3) to five (5) KRAs shall be defined for each office and individual employee. KRAs are broad categories of general outputs or outcomes. It is the mandate or function of the office and/or individual employee. The KRA is the reason why an office and/or job exist. It is an area where the office and/or individual employee are expected to focus on. 21. Setting the Objectives. The head of office shall set three (3) objectives per office KRA. The rater and the ratee shall discuss and agree on three (3) objectives per individual KRA. Objectives are specific tasks, which an office and/or employee need to do to achieve their specific KRAs. In objective setting, the SMART criteria, which stands for Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Relevant, Time Bound, shall be applied. The SMART criteria are illustrated in Annex G. 22. Setting the Timeline. The timeline shall define the target date for accomplishing each of the Objectives. The timeline for the office Objectives shall be set by the head of office in coordination with the Planning Office and School Planning Team; while the timeline for the individual Objectives shall be discussed and agreed by the rater and the ratee. 23. Assigning the Weight. Assigning of weights shall be done per KRA. Weights for each office KRA shall be assigned by the head of office in coordination with the Planning Office; while the weights for each of the individual KRAs shall be discussed and agreed upon by the rater and the ratee. 24. Identifying the Performance Indicators. Using a five (5)-point rating scale, the head of office shall identify a performance indicator for each of the office objectives, while the rater and the ratee shall identify and agree on the performance indicator for each of the individual objectives. Performance indicators are exact quantification of objectives expressed through rubrics. They are assessment tools, which gauge whether a performance is positive or negative. In identifying the performance indicator, the operational definition or meaning of each numerical rating shall be indicated under each relevant dimension (i.e., quality, efficiency, or timeliness) per performance target or success indicator. This shall ensure that the rating is objective, impartial and verifiable. Table 1 below discusses the performance measures by which the indicator must satisfy. Table 1. Performance Measures CATEGORY DEFINITION Effectiveness/Quality The extent to which actual performance compares with targeted performance. The degree to which objectives are achieved and the extent to which targeted problems are solved. In management, effectiveness relates to getting the right things done. Efficiency The extent to which time or resources is used for the intended task or purpose. Measures whether targets are accomplished with a minimum amount or quantity of waste, expense, or unnecessary effort. Timeliness Measures whether the deliverable was done on time based on the requirements of the rules and regulations, and/or clients/stakeholders. Time-related performance indicators evaluate such things as project completion deadlines, time management skills and other time-sensitive expectations. Some Performances are only rated on quality and efficiency, some on quality and timeliness, and others on efficiency only. You need not use all three (3) categories. 25. Demonstration of Competencies. During Phase I, the rater shall discuss with the ratee the competencies required of the individual personnel. Competencies are defined as the knowledge, skills and behavior that individuals demonstrate in achieving oneâs results. Competencies shall uphold the DepEdâs core values. They represent the way individuals define and live the values. 26. DepEd shall adopt four classes of competencies as follows: i. Core behavioral competencies are competencies, which cut across the organization; ii. Leadership competencies are competencies intended for managerial positions; a. Third level officials b. Chiefs and Assistant Chiefs c. School Heads and Department Heads iii. Staff Core Skills are competencies intended for staff and teaching-related personnel; and iv. Teaching competencies are competencies intended for teachers. The DepEd-required competencies are illustrated in Annex I. 27. The rateeâs demonstration of the required competencies shall be monitored to effectively plan the interventions needed for behavioral and professional development. The assessment in the demonstration of competencies shall not be reflected in the final rating. 28. Reaching Agreement. Once the office and individual KRAs, Objectives and Performance Indicators are clearly defined, the rater and the ratee shall commit and reach an agreement by signing the OPCRF and IPCRF. The signed/approved OPCRF and IPCRF shall be the basis for monitoring and assessment, which shall take place in Phases II and III, respectively. B. Phase II: Performance Monitoring and Coaching 29. The performance monitoring and coaching shall commence after the rater and the ratee commit on the KRAs, Objectives and Performance Indicators, and sign the OPCRF and IPCRF. This shall be done throughout the year. 30. The two (2) main components of Phase II are the following: i. Performance monitoring; and ii. Coaching and feedback. 31. Performance monitoring shall provide key inputs and objective basis for rating. It shall facilitate feedback and provide evidence of performance. Performance monitoring shall be the responsibility of both the rater and the ratee who agree to track and record significant incidents through the use of the Performance Monitoring and Coaching Form (PMCF) shown in Annex J. Significant incidents are actual events and behaviors in which both positive and negative performances are observed and documented. 32. Coaching and feedback shall be a continuous process. Coaching and feedback shall be provided by the rater and/or shall be sought by the ratee to improve work performance and behavior. The rater, as the coach or mentor of the ratee, playing a critical role in the performance monitoring and coaching, shall provide an enabling environment and intervention to improve the office performance and to manage and develop individual potentials. 33. The PMCF shall capture the significant incidents. It shall provide a record of demonstrated behaviors, competencies and performance, and shall be an effective substitute in the absence of quantifiable data. The rater and the ratee shall sign each significant incident recorded in the PMCF to ensure that agreement has been reached. C. Phase III: Performance Review and Evaluation 34. The performance review and evaluation shall be done at the end of the performance cycle to assess the office and individual employeeâs performance level based on the commitments and measures as contained in the signed OPCRF and IPCRF. 35. A mid-year review is prescribed to determine the progress in achieving the Objectives. In exceptional cases, and only if the situation warrants, a one-time recalibration of office and individual Objectives shall be allowed during the mid-year review. Exceptional cases shall include instances when high level decisions are taken into effect such as changes in strategic directions, and circumstances beyond the control of the ratee such as natural and/or man-made calamities, including typhoon, earthquake and other fortuitous events. During the mid-year review, the rater shall inform in writing the ratee of the status of performance, in case of an Unsatisfactory or Poor performance. Coaching, feedback and appropriate interventions shall be provided where necessary. 36. The RPMS shall put premium on KRAs towards the realization of organizational vision, mission, strategic priorities and the OPIF logframe. Hence, rating for planned and/or intervening tasks shall always be supported by reports, documents or any output as proofs of actual performance. In the absence of said bases or proofs, a particular task shall not be rated and shall be disregarded. 37. Office and Individual Performance Assessment. The head of office, in coordination with the Planning Office, shall assess the performance of the office vis-a-vis the committed targets at the beginning of the performance cycle. The rater and the ratee shall discuss and agree on the individual assessment based on the actual accomplishments of each of the KRAs and Objectives. The final rating shall be based solely on the accomplishment of the specific objectives as measured by the Performance Indicators. The OPCRF and IPCRF shall be accomplished and completed by the rater and the ratee to: i. Reflect actual accomplishments and results; ii. Rate each of the objectives; iii. Compute for the score per objective; iv. Determine the overall rating for accomplishments; v. Reach an agreement; and vi. Assess the competencies. 38. Initial self-rating shall be encouraged prior to the rater-ratee discussion. 39. Third Level Officials, as heads of offices, shall accomplish the OPCRF for submission to the Planning Office. The individual assessment of Third Level Officials shall be contained in the CESPES Forms for submission to the Career Executive Service Board (CESB). The BHROD and Personnel Division shall be furnished a copy of both forms. 40. Actual Results. The rater and the ratee shall discuss and agree on the actual accomplishments and results based on the performance commitments and measures made at the beginning of the rating period. They shall evaluate each objective whether it has been achieved or not. The significant incidents as reflected in the PMCF shall be considered for the actual results. 41. Rating the Objectives. Based on the actual accomplishments and results, each of the Objectives shall be rated using the rating scale specified below: Table 2. The RPMS Rating Scale NUMERICAL RATING ADJECTIVAL RATING DESCRIPTION OF MEANING OF RATING 5 Outstanding Performance represents an extraordinary level of achievement and commitment in terms of quality and time, technical skills and knowledge, ingenuity, creativity and initiative. Employees at this performance level should have demonstrated exceptional job mastery in all major areas of responsibility. Employee achievement and contributions to the organization are of marked excellence. 4 Very Satisfactory Performance exceeded expectations. All goals, objectives and targets were achieved above the established standards. 3 Satisfactory Performance met expectations in terms of quality of work, efficiency and timeliness. The most critical annual goals were met. 2 Unsatisfactory Performance failed to meet expectations, and/or one or more of the most critical goals were not met. 1 Poor Performance was consistently below expectations, and/or reasonable progress toward critical goals was not made. Significant improvement is needed in one or more important areas. The final assessment shall correspond to the adjectival description of Outstanding, Very Satisfactory, Satisfactory, Unsatisfactory or Poor. The range of adjectival rating is as per attached in Forms A, B, and C. 42. Process for Computing the Score per KRA. i. The rater and ratee shall ensure that each KRA has been assigned weight according to priority. ii. As an option, the rater and ratee may assign weights to objectives which shall be equal to the total weight assigned to a particular KRA. KRA 1 â Weight assigned is 40% Objective 1 is 20% Objective 2 is 10% Objective 3 is 10% iii. The score per KRA shall be computed using the following formula: 43. Plus Factor. The plus factor shall be considered as another KRA. These are value adding accomplishments, which are not covered within the regular duties and responsibilities. The weight on the plus factor shall not exceed the weight of the highest mandated KRA. For teachers, the plus factor shall be limited to work/activities, which contribute to the teaching-learning process. 44. Determining the Overall Rating for Accomplishments. The overall rating/assessment for the accomplishments shall fall within the following adjectival ratings and shall be in three (3) decimal points: Table 3. Adjectival Ratings RANGE ADJECTIVAL RATING 4.500-5.000 Outstanding 3.500-4.499 Very Satisfactory 2.500-3.499 Satisfactory 1.500-2.499 Unsatisfactory below 1.499 Poor 45. Reaching Agreement. Upon determining the overall rating for the actual accomplishments and results, the rater and the ratee shall reach an agreement by signing the OPCRF and IPCRF. The average rating of individual staff members should not go higher than the collective performance assessment of the office. 46. Assessing the Competencies. The rater shall discuss with the ratee the set of competencies observed during the performance cycle. The competencies shall not be reflected in the final rating. Competencies shall be monitored for developmental purposes. In evaluating the individualâs demonstration of competencies, the rating scale in Table 4 shall apply: Table 4. The DepEd Competencies Scale SCALE DEFINITION 5 Role model 4 Consistently demonstrates 3 Most of the time demonstrates 2 Sometimes demonstrates 1 Rarely demonstrates 5 (role model) â all competency indicators 4 (consistently demonstrates) â four competency indicators 3 (most of the time demonstrates) â three competency indicators 2 (sometimes demonstrates) â two competency indicators 1 (rarely demonstrates) â one competency indicator D. Phase IV: Performance Rewarding and Development Planning 47. The results of the performance review and evaluation shall be used in performance rewarding and development planning. This phase shall be done after Phase III. 48. The rater shall discuss and provide qualitative comments, observations and recommendations in the individual employeeâs performance commitment, competency assessment and significant incidents which shall be used for training and professional development. These can be written under the strengths and development needs column of the Part IV-Development Plans of the IPCRF. 49. The rater and the ratee shall identify and discuss the individualâs strengths and development needs, and reflect them in the Part IV-Development Plans of the IPCRF. The competencies which the ratee demonstrated consistently and the areas, where the ratee meet or exceed expectations shall be referred to as the rateeâs strengths. The competencies, which the ratee rarely demonstrates and the areas where the ratee has room for improvement and has not met the expectations, shall be identified as the rateeâs development needs. Make a situational SOLO-based questions in the context of school leadershipCaractĂ©ristiques gĂ©nĂ©rales de la synthĂšse de documents La synthĂšse est un exercice assez simple, car trĂšs technique. Pour rĂ©ussir, il faut nĂ©anmoins faire preuve de rigueur car elle est trĂšs codifiĂ©e. Les piĂšges de la synthĂšse La plupart des Ă©tudiants ignorent la technique de synthĂšse telle quâelle est attendue en BTS. Aussi plusieurs piĂšges sont Ă Ă©viter. La synthĂšse nâest pas une dissertation personnelle Premier Ă©cueil : si lâon se souvint de la consigne vue plus avant, le travail demandĂ© doit ĂȘtre objectif. Aucun point de vue personnel ou mĂȘme apprĂ©ciation subjectif sur les documents ne doit apparaĂźtre dans la rĂ©daction. On recommande dâailleurs aux Ă©tudiants de ne pas utiliser le pronom « je » dans leur travail de façon Ă Ă©viter tout malentendu. Le candidat doit donc rapporter les idĂ©es des auteurs de façon neutre, sans jugement de valeur. La synthĂšse nâest pas un rĂ©sumĂ© des documents La plus grande erreur commise en premiĂšre annĂ©e de BTS consiste Ă rĂ©sumer les documents, les uns aprĂšs les autres. Un petit dĂ©tour par lâĂ©tymologie nous permettra de mieux comprendre le travail attendu. Le terme « synthĂšse » vient du grec sunthesis qui signifie « mise en commun ». Il sâagit donc de rassembler les informations collectĂ©es dans les diffĂ©rents documents en un ensemble organisĂ©, donc cohĂ©rent. Les idĂ©es doivent ĂȘtre confrontĂ©es en Ă©tablissant des liens entre les documents. La synthĂšse nâest pas un montage de citations Le Bac de français est derriĂšre vous. Oubliez (en partie) cette Ă©preuve. Ici, pas de citations, de numĂ©ros de lignes pour appuyer votre rĂ©daction. Votre travail consiste Ă reformuler de façon synthĂ©tique le contenu et les enjeux des documents. La nature du travail demandĂ© Une consigne codifiĂ©e pour rĂ©diger votre synthĂšse Trois adjectifs dans cette consigne. Tout dâabord, la synthĂšse doit ĂȘtre concise, câest-Ă -dire courte et dense. Quatre pages maximum sont gĂ©nĂ©ralement attendues Ă lâĂ©preuve. Nous lâavons dĂ©jĂ Ă©voquĂ© plus haut, la synthĂšse est un exercice absolument objectif. Aucune idĂ©e extĂ©rieure aux documents ni commentaire personnel ne doivent figurer dans la rĂ©daction. Enfin, la synthĂšse est un travail ordonnĂ©. Un plan soutient donc la rĂ©daction, on attend ainsi : âą une introduction; âą un dĂ©veloppement; âą une conclusion. La dĂ©marche Ă adopter pour votre synthĂšse La prĂ©paration de la synthĂšse se dĂ©compose en deux temps : âą Un premier temps consacrĂ© Ă la lecture active de chaque document. Les idĂ©es importantes sont relevĂ©es, les arguments sont listĂ©s, le raisonnement de lâauteur est analysĂ©. âą Un second temps consacrĂ© Ă la mise en relation des diffĂ©rents documents de façon Ă Ă©tablir des liens entre eux : il sâagit en fait de recomposer un dĂ©bat entre les auteurs. Sont-ils dâaccord ? Sâopposent-ils ? Si oui sur quels point ? ⊠La synthĂšse : un acte de communication On veut donc vĂ©rifier que vous savez « lire » : câest-Ă -dire que vous ĂȘtes capable de comprendre ce qui est Ă©crit dans les documents et de reformuler selon des contraintes de longueur de texte. LâĂ©tymologie du verbe « lire » nous le confirme : legere, en latin, signifique « choisir » La mĂ©thodologie de synthĂšse en 10 points Voici un rĂ©capitulatif des 10 maladresses principales Ă Ă©viter et des 10 rĂšgles Ă adopter Les interdits de la synthĂšse 1. Faire des citations des auteurs des documents pour soutenir les idĂ©es avancĂ©es. 2. Donner son avis, Ă©mettre des remarques subjectives : ex : lâauteur oublie malheureusement que⊠3. Faire des rĂ©fĂ©rences Ă des documents hors corpus, faire allusion Ă une autre Ćuvre de lâauteur. 4. RĂ©diger un « catalogue » des idĂ©es sans lien logique entre elles. RĂ©diger au fil de son inspiration. 5. RĂ©diger une synthĂšse longue et dĂ©taillĂ©e. 6. Laisser de cĂŽtĂ© un document, parce que lâon ne lâa pas compris ou quâil nous semble inintĂ©ressant⊠7. Utiliser le pronom « je ». 8. Faire un plan apparent (A, BâŠ) avec des titres. 9. Juxtaposer des rĂ©sumĂ©s des documents. 10. Faire rĂ©fĂ©rence aux documents par le numĂ©ro attribuĂ© dans le dossier. Ce quâil faut faire 1. Reformuler les idĂ©es. 2. Rester neutre, objectif. 3. Ne traiter que les documents proposĂ©s. 4. Traiter les idĂ©es selon un plan prĂ©cis. 5. Quatre pages maximum 6. Traiter tous les documents, mĂȘme de façon inĂ©gale, certains documents sont plus « riches » en idĂ©es que dâautres. 7. PrĂ©fĂ©rer le « on » ou le « nous ». 8. RĂ©diger sans titres avec des phrases de transition. 9. Confronter les idĂ©es communes aux documents. 10. Faire rĂ©fĂ©rence aux documents par le nom de lâauteur et lâinitiale du prĂ©nom. Si ces 10 rĂšgles sont respectĂ©es, une importante partie de la mĂ©thode est acquise ! L'Ă©valuation du travail de synthĂšse On se rappelle que cette Ă©preuve est notĂ©e sur 40 points. En rĂšgle gĂ©nĂ©rale, les correcteurs adoptent le barĂšme suivant qui vise Ă valider 4 grandes compĂ©tences, chacune notĂ©e sur 40 points. Comprendre les documents Ces 10 premiers points valident vos compĂ©tences de lecture : Les idĂ©es essentielles ont-elles Ă©tĂ© bien relevĂ©es ? Tous les documents ont-ils Ă©tĂ© bien compris ? LâunitĂ© thĂ©matique des documents doit apparaĂźtre ans le traitement des informations collectĂ©es. Confronter Le correcteur vĂ©rifiera notamment que tous les documents ont bien Ă©tĂ© exploitĂ©s, quâaucune « impasse » nâa Ă©tĂ© faite. Il sanctionnera, le cas Ă©chĂ©ant, lâajout dâidĂ©es extĂ©rieures. Certains Ă©tudiants pensent que lâintroduction dâidĂ©es extĂ©rieures vient enrichir leur travail et montre leur connaissance du sujet. Il faudra attendre lâĂ©preuve dâĂ©criture personnelle pour le faire. Ici, rappelons-le, seuls les documents proposĂ©s Ă lâĂ©tude figurent dans la synthĂšse. La confrontation des idĂ©es sera Ă©galement Ă©valuĂ©e : Le candidat a-t-il Ă©tabli des liens entre les idĂ©es des auteurs ? Chaque partie de la rĂ©daction repose-t-elle sur plusieurs documents ? Structurer Quelle que soit la logique suivie, la synthĂšse suit un plan. Introduction et conclusion doivent apparaĂźtre clairement. La rĂ©daction suit une ligne directrice et un parcours. Les documents sont rĂ©fĂ©rencĂ©s, lâensemble est organisĂ©. Utilisez des connecteurs logiques pour lier les parties entre elles. Ils faciliteront grandement la lecture et la progression de vos idĂ©es sera plus claire. RĂ©diger & reformuler Une expression Ă©crire claire est attendue. Elle respecte les normes et usages de la langue Ă©crite courante. La richesse du vocabulaire sera valorisĂ©e. Le tout est rĂ©digĂ© : pas de tirets, de titres ou de tissage de citations. Les propos des auteurs sont reformulĂ©s, on sanctionnera ici toute formulation dâapprĂ©ciations personnelles.I Le contrat de vente classique 1. LâintĂ©rĂȘt pour la PMI de connaĂźtre la diversitĂ© des contrats commerciaux Les PME-PMI sont rĂ©guliĂšrement amenĂ©es Ă conclure des contrats commerciaux. Il est donc nĂ©cessaire pour lâassistant(e) de gestion de connaĂźtre les diffĂ©rents contrats et les rĂšgles qui les rĂ©gissent. 2. Le transfert de propriĂ©tĂ© DĂšs quâil y a accord entre le vendeur et lâacheteur, il y a transfert de propriĂ©tĂ©. Lâacheteur doit donc assumer les risques dĂšs le transfert de propriĂ©tĂ©. Pour pallier ce risque, il peut prĂ©voir dans le contrat une clause de rĂ©serve en propriĂ©tĂ©, qui a pour effet de diffĂ©rer le transfert de la propriĂ©tĂ© et des risques quâil entraine jusqu'Ă conclusion totale du contrat. 3. Les obligations des parties Les garanties dans le contrat de vente se dĂ©composent ainsi : ï Les garanties obligatoires : o la garantie lĂ©gale de conformitĂ© permettant au client dâobtenir la rĂ©paration, le remboursement ou le remplacement du produit dĂ©fectueux o la garantie contre les vices cachĂ©s : se sont des dĂ©fauts non visibles au moment de lâachat qui rendent le bien inutilisable ï Les garanties complĂ©mentaires ou commerciales : elles sont facultatives pour le client. Elles peuvent ĂȘtre gratuites (mise Ă disposition dâun produit au client durant une rĂ©paration) ou payantes (extension de garantie pour lâachat dâune machine Ă laver) Exercice dâapplication 4. Les recours possibles Lorsquâune procĂ©dure est engagĂ©e, la juridiction compĂ©tente pour statuer lâaffaire est le tribunal de commerce du dĂ©fendeur si le client et lâentreprise sont des commerçants. Les sanctions les plus courantes sont : - infliger des pĂ©nalitĂ©s de retard - obtenir une rĂ©duction de prix - faire exĂ©cuter le contrat par une autre entreprise - obtenir des dommages et intĂ©rĂȘts II Les particularitĂ©s du contrat de vente commerciale Le contrat prĂ©sente certaines particularitĂ©s que la PME doit connaitre : On peut donc considĂ©rer quâun bon de commande est un contrat de vente commerciale, dans la mesure oĂč il rĂ©unit ses clauses. Enfin, il existe des situations ou les engagements peuvent diffĂ©rĂ©s. Câest le cas : - de la vente Ă distance : le client dispose dâun dĂ©lai de rĂ©tractation de 14 jours - la vente avec arrhes : si le client verse des arrhes, il pourra annuler le contrat mais perdra le montant versĂ© Ă lâentreprise. III Les contrats de maintenance et de sous6traitance 1. Le contrat de maintenance Câest un contrat par lequel une entreprise se charge de vĂ©rifier, dâentretenir ou de rĂ©parer un appareil technique ou une installation complexe. Il doit donc spĂ©cifier : - la dĂ©finition de la prestation et le lieu de rĂ©alisation - la durĂ©e du contrat - le prix unitaire ou forfaitaire 2. Le contrat de sous-traitance Il permet Ă une entreprise appelĂ©e « donneur dâordre » de confier la rĂ©alisation dâune prestation Ă une autre entreprise appelĂ©e « sous traitant ». Lâentreprise sâengage Ă payer le sous traitant selon les modalitĂ©s prĂ©vues dans le contrat et reste donc responsable de la rĂ©alisation de la prestation devant le client. Avantages et inconvĂ©nients de la sous-traitance : IV CrĂ©er un contrat via un rĂ©seau de franchise Afin de dĂ©velopper son activitĂ©, lâassistant(e) de gestion peut conclure des contrats commerciaux avec des partenaires Ă©trangers La franchise est une mĂ©thode de collaboration entre, dâune part, une entreprise, le franchiseur, et, dâautre part, une ou plusieurs entreprises, les franchisĂ©s. Son objet est dâexploiter un concept de franchise mis au point par le franchiseur. Tous sont porteurs de la mĂȘme enseigne, symbole de lâidentitĂ© et de la rĂ©putation du rĂ©seau. La garantie de qualitĂ© est assurĂ©e par la transmission et le contrĂŽle du respect du savoir-faire et par la mise Ă disposition dâune gamme homogĂšne de produits, de services et/ou de technologies. a. Le franchiseur Câest un entrepreneur indĂ©pendant qui a mis au point et exploitĂ© avec succĂšs un concept original dans plusieurs unitĂ©s pilotes. Il apporte Ă ses franchisĂ©s une formation initiale et permanente pour leur permettre dâappliquer son concept et consacre Ă la promotion de sa marque, Ă la recherche et Ă lâinnovation, les moyens humains et financiers permettant dâassurer le dĂ©veloppement et la pĂ©rennitĂ© de son concept. b. Le franchisĂ© Câest un entrepreneur indĂ©pendant sĂ©lectionnĂ© par le franchiseur. Il doit avoir la volontĂ© de collaborer loyalement Ă la rĂ©ussite du rĂ©seau de franchise en adhĂ©rant au principe dâhomogĂ©nĂ©itĂ© de ce rĂ©seau, tel que dĂ©fini par le franchiseur. Il engage des moyens financiers, afin de rĂ©tribuer le franchiseur pour ses apports (paiement dâun droit dâentrĂ©e et dâun pourcentage sur le chiffre dâaffaires). c. Les avantages et les inconvĂ©nients du contrat de franchise pour le franchiseur et pour le franchisĂ©. Avantages InconvĂ©nients Franchiseur â DĂ©velopper son rĂ©seau Ă moindres frais. â Faire des Ă©conomies dâĂ©chelle. â MaĂźtriser le dĂ©veloppement de son concept. â DĂ©velopper son image, sa notoriĂ©tĂ©. â Augmenter ses parts de marchĂ©. â AccroĂźtre son chiffre dâaffaires. â Organiser des campagnes publicitaires Ă lâĂ©chelon national. â Transmettre son savoir-faire Ă des commerçants indĂ©pendants. â Assurer une assistance technique et des formations. â Avoir des franchisĂ©s qui dĂ©prĂ©cient lâimage de lâentreprise. FranchisĂ© â Avoir une notoriĂ©tĂ© dĂšs lâouverture du commerce. â Rester un commerçant indĂ©pendant et ĂȘtre responsable de son entreprise. â BĂ©nĂ©ficier du savoir-faire du franchiseur. â BĂ©nĂ©ficier dâune assistance technique, de formations, dâune logistique dâapprovisionnements, etc. â Respecter la charte et les normes du franchiseur, ce qui limite sa libertĂ© de commerçant indĂ©pendant. â Sâacquitter des droits dâentrĂ©e et de redevance. â Avoir une obligation dâapprovisionnement exclusif chez le franchiseur. d. Les clĂ©s de la rĂ©ussite de cette forme de commerce Les clĂ©s de la rĂ©ussite sont : â la collaboration commerciale et technique ; â lâassociation du savoir-faire du franchiseur et de lâesprit entrepreneurial du franchisĂ© ; â les structures organisationnelles sont plus simples et plus Ă©conomiques quâen succursalisme car un bon franchisĂ© est motivĂ© et nâa pas besoin dâĂȘtre poussĂ© ; â câest un systĂšme rapide et Ă©volutif pour couvrir un marchĂ© car investissements et compĂ©tences sont partagĂ©es. e. Les chiffres clĂ©s de la franchise en 2019 f. La typologie des franchisĂ©s âą 60% des franchisĂ©s sont des hommes âą 50% des franchisĂ©s ont entre 35 et 49 ans âą 66% des franchisĂ©s sont dâanciens salariĂ©s du privĂ© âą Chaque franchisĂ© emploie en moyenne 7 salariĂ©s âą 84% des rĂ©seaux sont toujours la propriĂ©tĂ© de leur fondateur âą Chaque rĂ©seau crĂ©e en moyenne 8 nouveaux points de vente par an âą 29% des rĂ©seaux ont des points de vente Ă lâĂ©trangerevolution plus evolution plus 3Le vieillissement est lâensemble des processus physiologiques et psychologiques qui modifient la structure et les fonctions de lâorganisme Ă partir de lâĂąge mĂ»r. Il rĂ©sulte des effets combinĂ©s de facteurs gĂ©nĂ©tiques et environnementaux auxquels est soumis lâorganisme tout au long de sa vie. Il sâagit dâun processus lent et progressif qui est la consĂ©quence de lâaction du temps sur les fonctions de lâorganisme. La sĂ©nescence est le processus de vieillissement biologique, la suite des changements irrĂ©versibles dans un organisme qui conduisent Ă la mort. Ce processus physiologique dĂ©bute aprĂšs la phase de maturitĂ© et se traduit par la dĂ©gradation progressive et inĂ©luctable des fonctions vitales : reproduction, motricitĂ©, systĂšme immunitaire, etc. La sĂ©nilitĂ© est la dĂ©tĂ©rioration pathologique (liĂ©e Ă une maladie) des facultĂ©s physiques et mentales dâun individu ĂągĂ©. Il existe trois modalitĂ©s diffĂ©rentes de vieillissement : le vieillissement rĂ©ussi, avec une absence ou une atteinte minime des fonctions physiologiques et une absence de pathologies ; le vieillissement habituel, avec des atteintes considĂ©rĂ©es comme physiologiques, liĂ©es Ă lâĂąge, de certaines fonctions, mais sans pathologies invalidantes ; le vieillissement pathologique liĂ© Ă des maladies sĂ©vĂšres Ă©volutives ou compliquĂ©es et responsable le plus souvent dâune dĂ©pendance importante. Ă ces trois notions, il est important dâajouter la notion de fragilitĂ© qui correspond Ă un Ă©tat dâĂ©quilibre prĂ©caire avec lâimpossibilitĂ© de rĂ©pondre de façon adaptĂ©e Ă un stress quâil soit mĂ©dical, psychologique ou social. AprĂšs 65 ans, 10 Ă 20% des personnes peuvent ĂȘtre considĂ©rĂ©es comme fragiles et jusquâĂ 50% aprĂšs 85 ans. Il sâagit de personnes Ă haut risque dâhospitalisation, dâinstitutionnalisation et de dĂ©cĂšs. Les psychologues dĂ©crivent 5 grands types de personnalitĂ© liĂ©s au vieillissement, plus ou moins prĂ©sents chez chacun : le mature est actif, tolĂ©rant et il sâadapte parfaitement Ă son Ă©volution ; le pantouflard est passif, indulgent envers lui-mĂȘme et il utilise son Ăąge pour valoriser son inactivitĂ© ; le blindĂ© est mentalement rigide, il a peur de la dĂ©chĂ©ance et sâenferme dans ses souvenirs de jeunesse ; le mĂ©content est amer, intolĂ©rant et pessimiste, anxieux face Ă la mort ; il en veut au monde entier de son Ă©tat et de ses Ă©checs ; le dĂ©prĂ©ciĂ© est dĂ©pressif, insatisfait de sa vie, sans estime de soi et envahi de regrets sur le passĂ© ; il envisage la mort comme une dĂ©livrance ou une finalitĂ©. La solitude a un effet important sur la santĂ©. Si nous comparons des personnes ĂągĂ©es qui conservent un vaste rĂ©seau de relations sociales Ă dâautres qui sont isolĂ©es, ces derniĂšres auraient un risque supĂ©rieur de mort prĂ©maturĂ©e. Parler et Ă©changer avec les autres est essentiel au bien-ĂȘtre. Stimuler la mĂ©moire dâune personne ĂągĂ©e lui permettra de conserver son autonomie et de retarder la dĂ©pendance. Pour rester en forme, le cerveau doit travailler de maniĂšre complĂšte. Plusieurs activitĂ©s peuvent donc permettre Ă la personne dĂ©pendante de garder une bonne mĂ©moire le plus longtemps possible : tenir un agenda, rĂ©diger un journal, jouer Ă des jeux ou encore pratiquer des activitĂ©s de crĂ©ation. Pour stimuler lâactivitĂ© sociale dâune personne ĂągĂ©e, faire des rencontres est le meilleur moyen de rester en forme : rencontrer des personnes, poursuivre les activitĂ©s quâon aime, se servir du tĂ©lĂ©phone et mĂȘme dâinternet si possible. Il y a des personnes ĂągĂ©es qui ne parlent Ă personne pendant des semaines. Pour dâautres, le contact se limite aux relations avec les caissiĂšres des supermarchĂ©s. Avec lâĂąge, certains de nos aĂźnĂ©s sont murĂ©s dans le silence. Pas par choix. Mais parce que les liens familiaux se sont distendus ou nâexistent plus. Ils se retrouvent alors seuls, sans Ă©change, sans partage et sans affection. Un des grands dĂ©fis Ă relever pour lâavenir est la lutte contre la solitude des personnes ĂągĂ©es. Il faut savoir que la solitude est dĂ©sormais considĂ©rĂ©e comme un facteur de risque de la maladie dâAlzheimer. Lutter contre la solitude, câest prĂ©venir lâexclusion, la pauvretĂ© et la perte dâautonomie. Quel est le secret pour prĂ©server son corps malgrĂ© les annĂ©es ? Un peu dâactivitĂ© physique et des repas Ă©quilibrĂ©s ! Pour lutter contre lâapparition des rides ou la chute des cheveux et conserver ses capacitĂ©s physiques et cognitives, mieux vaut surveiller son assiette. Inutile dâaller chercher des produits miracles pour rester jeune : il faut commencer par manger mieux! Car en fonction des aliments quâon choisit, on prĂ©serve son capital santĂ© et on garde la forme durant de longues annĂ©es. Les problĂšmes alimentaires spĂ©cifiques au vieillissement apparaissent Ă des Ăąges variables et sont beaucoup plus marquĂ©s aprĂšs 85 ans. Une bonne nutrition a un rĂŽle de prĂ©vention de mieux en mieux connu sur les pathologies liĂ©es Ă lâĂąge. Un bon rĂ©gime pour un senior comprend beaucoup de fruits et de lĂ©gumes, du pain, du riz, des pĂątes et des fibres. Il ne faut pas oublier le poisson, surtout le thon, le saumon et les sardines, et limiter les viandes rouges, en prĂ©fĂ©rant le poulet, la dinde ou le lapin. Il faut aussi rĂ©duire le sel et le sucre, et tous les aliments riches en graisses comme les frites, les fritures ou les gĂąteaux. Lâeau est trĂšs importante, mais on peut aussi boire du thĂ©, des jus de fruits sans sucre ou du lait Ă©crĂ©mĂ© ou demi â Ă©crĂ©mĂ©. Il faut aussi de la vitamine D pour garder les os en bonne santĂ©. On peut la trouver dans le poisson, la margarine et les cĂ©rĂ©ales du petit dĂ©jeuner. Le corps produit tout seul la vitamine D quand il est exposĂ© au soleil, il est donc conseillĂ© de profiter du soleil de temps en temps avec de la protection pour aider le corps Ă produire cette vitamine. Ătape naturelle de la vie dâune femme, la mĂ©nopause mĂ©rite quelques attentions sur le plan nutritionnel Ă cause de la modification du statut hormonal. Beaucoup de femmes prennent du poids Ă la cinquantaine. Souvent tout simplement parce que leur mode de vie change, avec moins de dĂ©penses physiques et plus de temps pour apprĂ©cier les plaisirs de la table ! Mais aussi parce que les transformations hormonales de la mĂ©nopause vont favoriser la mise en rĂ©serve de graisses. Le premier antidote contre ce risque de surpoids est une activitĂ© physique suffisante et, en complĂ©ment, une alimentation allĂ©gĂ©e grĂące Ă lâĂ©limination des calories «inutiles». Ă Ă©viter ou Ă consommer avec beaucoup de modĂ©ration : les boissons sucrĂ©es comme les sodas, les bonbons, les biscuits salĂ©s ou sucrĂ©s, lâalcool sous toutes ses formes, les glaces et les pĂątisseries, les plats riches en graisses, les frites et les fritures, les sauces classiques, la mayonnaise, les sauces barbecue et tous les laitages au lait entier. Les modifications hormonales et la diminution de lâactivitĂ© physique ont Ă©galement pour consĂ©quence une âfonteâ progressive de la masse musculaire. Pour lutter contre ce phĂ©nomĂšne, il y a une seule solution : bouger !