not having a strong taste or character, or having no interest or energy / 풍미가 없는, 재미없는

to waste, to spend carelessly / 낭비하다, 낭비

to form an opinion or guess that something is true because of the information that you have / 추론하다

a person who thinks and acts in an independent way, often behaving differently from the expected or usual way / 개성이 강한 사람, 이단아

extremely small / 미소한, 극미량

continuing without any possibility of being stopped / 피할 수 없는, 냉혹한, 엄연한

extreme unhappiness caused by physical or mental suffering / 고통, 괴로움

a list of matters to be discussed at a meeting / 의제, 안건

perfect, without fault / 나무랄 데 없는, 완벽한

different in every way / 이질적인, 상이한

(of a container) so tightly closed that no air can leave or enter / 밀폐된, 은둔하는

a natural ability or skill / 소질, 적성

something that you say or do that shows you do not respect God or a religion / 신성 모독

behavior that is not loyal / 배신, 배신행위

extremely great in ability, amount, or strength / 굉장한, 거대한, 막대한

to speak angrily to someone because you disapprove of what they have said or done / 꾸짖다, 비난

careful not to cause embarrassment or attract too much attention, especially by keeping something secret / 신중한, 조심스러운, 작은

(of actions) having no effect or achieving nothing / 헛된, 소용없는

a feeling of pleasure and also slight sadness when you think about things that happened in the past / 향수병

thought to be too important or too special to be changed / 신성불가침의

not telling the truth / 허위의, 거짓말을 하는, 거짓의

to prevent further disagreement in arguments or war by giving to the opposing side an advantage that they have demanded / 달래다, 유화 정책을 쓰다

the possible results of an action / 파문, 영향

quiet and easy to influence, persuade, or control / 다루기 쉬운

unlucky and usually unhappy / 불행한, 불운한

to make someone feel slightly frightened or worried about their ability to achieve something / 겁먹게 하다, 기를 죽이다

praise and approval / 찬사, 수상

to complain to something or about something / 항의하다, 충고하다

able to work as intended or able to succeed / 실행 가능한

honest or lasting support or loyalty / 충실함, 신의, 정확도

to come together in a large group of people or animals / ~을 모으다, 모이다

changing suddenly and often / 변덕스러운

especially of a disease or a condition, regularly found and very common among a particular group or in a particular area / 풍토병, 지방병

too obviously showing your money, possessions, or power, in an attempt to make other people notice and admire you / 화려한, 허세를 부리는

the quality of being honest and telling the truth, especially about a difficult or embarrassing subject / 정직, 솔직

to cause trouble to develop / 유발하다, ~을 조장하다

able to produce a lot of crops, fruit, babies, young animals, etc / 다산의, 기름진, 비옥한

relating to how good or bad something is / 질적인, 정성의, 성질의

to increase the size or value of something by adding something to it / 늘리다, 증가시키다

the form of a language that a particular group of speakers uses naturally, especially in informal situations / 사투리, 지방어

willing to accept or be influenced by a suggestion / 순종하는, 복종할 의무가 있는, 제재를 받는

having a lower or less important position / 하위의, 부차적인

based on what is experienced or seen rather than on theory / 경험에 의거한

to develop or grow quickly / 싹트다

giving too much attention to formal rules or small details / 현학적인, 아는 체하는, 세세한 것에 얽매이는

for the present time but likely to change / 임시의, 잠정적인

being almost the same or having the same effect as something, usually something bad / 동등한, 같은

the fact of finding interesting or valuable things by chance / 운 좋은 발견, 뜻밖의 발견

demanding that people obey completely, without asking or caring about anyone else's opinions / 독재적인

weak and possibly does not exist / 얇은, 빈약한, 보잘것없는

a position of power, strength, or success / 우세, 우월, 주도권

artificial and difficult to believe / 부자연스러운, 윈위적인

(of weather conditions) neither very hot nor very cold / 온화한, 절제된

so obvious that it can be easily be seen or known, or (of a feeling) so strong that it seems as if it can be touched or physically felt / 감지할 수 있는

something, especially a gas or other substance, that is poisonous or very harmful / 유독한, 유해한

an example of dishonest and illegal behavior / 부정행위, 위법 행위

to raise someone to a higher rank or more powerful position / 승격 시키다, 칭찬하다

understood without being expressed directly / 암묵적인

(especially of a disease or something bad) continuing for a long time / 만성적인

thinking only about yourself and what is good for you / 자기중심적인

to have things or people as parts or members; to consist of / ~로 이루어지다

to look down on, to display arrogance / 자신을 낮추다, 겸손하다, 잘난체하다

not serious about a serious subject, in an attempt to be funny or to appear clever / 익살맞은, 우스운, 농담의

to take control or possession of something in a gradual way and often without being noticed / 침해하다, 잠식하다, 침입하다

perfect, or complete in every way / 완전한, 뛰어난

causing improvement of behavior or character / 유익한, 건강에 좋은

honest, sincere, and trusting, sometimes in a way that seems silly / 독창적인, 솔직한, 숨김없는

much more than usual or expected / 과도한, 지나친

mysterious and known only by a few people / 비밀의, 불가사의한

short and clear, expressing what needs to be said without unnecessary words / 간결한

to forgive, free from blame / 용서하다, 면제하다

a person who is extremely skilled at something, especially at playing an instrument or performing / 거장, 명연주자

strong criticism or disapproval / 비난

very difficult or impossible to control, manage, or solve / 고집센, 처리하기 어려운

a pause or rest from something difficult or unpleasant / 휴식, 일시적 중단, 연기

having low moral standards / 타락한, 퇴폐적인

to destroy or damage something / ~의 가치를 떨어뜨리다, 손상시키다

to show or make obvious something you are proud of in order to get admiration / 과시하다

careful when using money or food or (of a meal) cheap or small in amount / 절약하는, 간소한, 검소한

to keep one thing separate from another / 분리하다, 차별하다

something that happened or existed before another thing, especially if it either developed into it or had an influence on it / 선구자, 선배, 전조

clearly expressed and easy to understand, or thinking speaking clearly / 명쾌한, 명료한

sad and serious / 우울한, 애처로운, 슬퍼하는

a very serious event resulting in great destruction and change / 파멸, 종말

feeling very sorry and guilty for something bad that you have done / 깊이 뉘우치는

showing strong feelings / 열렬한, 열정적인

larger and containing more detail than necessary, or intended to seem important or great / 웅장한, 당당한

clearly separate or different in shape or form / 별개의

not showing emotions or thoughts and therefore very difficult to understand or get to know / 수수께끼 같은, 헤아릴 수 없는

lasting for only a short time / 수명이 짧은

a complete failure, especially because of bad planning and organization / 대실패, 와해, 붕괴

strongly believing in religion and living in a way that shows this belief / 신앙심이 깊은, 위선적인

to (cause something to) twist or bend violently and unnaturally into a different shape or form / 비틀다, 일그러지다, 일그러뜨리다

to examine something very carefully in order to discover information / 자세히 조사하다

easily changed into a new shape / 두드려 펼 수 있는, 가단성의

showing no respect for a god or a religion, often through language / 신성 모독의, 세속적인

a product that is extremely good in a particular place / 전문, 전공, 특질

treating everyone fairly and in the same way / 공정한, 공평한, 정당한

more important or powerful than all others / 우위의, 탁월한

a model of something, or a very clear and typical example of something / 패러다임, 사고체계

the most typical example / 정수, 본실, 가장 순수한 형태

to argue that a statement or claim is not true / ~을 반박하다, 논박하다

traditional and ordinary / 관습적인, 틀에 박힌

showing hard work, care, and attention to detail / 근면한, 부지런한, 끈기 있는

very cruel / 기괴한, 괴물 같은, 엄청난

famous for something considered bad / 악명높은

very ordinary and therefore not interesting / 재미없는, 일상적인

spending or using large amounts of money, time, energy, etc., especially in a way that is not very wise / 낭비하는

in a way that is more than enough / 충분히, 상세하게, 넉넉히

coming or likely to happen very soon / 임박한, 절박한

sad and thinking about something that is impossible or in the past / 생각에 잠긴, 탐나는 듯한

expecting to be obeyed immediately and without any questions / 단호한, 독단적인, 결정적인

a person who doubts the truth or value of an idea or belief / 회의론자, 의심 많은 사람

to go further, rise above, or be more important or better than something, especially a limit / 초월하다

to accept or allow behavior that is wrong / 용납하다, 용서하다, 눈감아주다

very great admiration or praise for someone, especially when it is more than is deserved / 아첨, 지나친 찬사

having a good understanding of the way people behave and or a good knowledge of culture and fashion / 정교한, 복잡한, 세련된, 수준높은

extremely bad in a way that is very noticeable / 말도 안되는, 지독한, 악명 높은, 어처구니 없는

to exist in an unpleasant or unwanted situation, often for a long time / 머물다, 약화되다

difficult, needing a lot of effort and energy / 힘드는, 고된, 분투적인

Fundamental D-05 | Quizalize

Fundamental Week2. D-05

What is a Plant Cell? Plant cells are eukaryotic cells that vary in several fundamental factors from other eukaryotic organisms. Both plant and animal cells contain a nucleus along with similar organelles. One of the distinctive aspects of a plant cell is the presence of a cell wall outside the cell membrane. Plant Cell Structure Just like different organs within the body, plant cell structure includes various components known as cell organelles that perform different functions to sustain itself. These organelles include: Cell Wall It is a rigid layer which is composed of polysaccharides cellulose, pectin and hemicellulose. It is located outside the cell membrane. It also comprises glycoproteins and polymers such as lignin, cutin, or suberin. The primary function of the cell wall is to protect and provide structural support to the cell. The plant cell wall is also involved in protecting the cell against mechanical stress and providing form and structure to the cell. It also filters the molecules passing in and out of it. The formation of the cell wall is guided by microtubules. It consists of three layers, namely, primary, secondary and the middle lamella. The primary cell wall is formed by cellulose laid down by enzymes. Cell membrane It is the semi-permeable membrane that is present within the cell wall. It is composed of a thin layer of protein and fat. The cell membrane plays an important role in regulating the entry and exit of specific substances within the cell. For instance, cell membrane keeps toxins from entering inside, while nutrients and essential minerals are transported across. Nucleus The nucleus is a membrane-bound structure that is present only in eukaryotic cells. The vital function of a nucleus is to store DNA or hereditary information required for cell division, metabolism and growth. 1. Nucleolus: It manufactures cells’ protein-producing structures and ribosomes. 2. Nucleopore: Nuclear membrane is perforated with holes called nucleopore that allow proteins and nucleic acids to pass through. Plastids They are membrane-bound organelles that have their own DNA. They are necessary to store starch and to carry out the process of photosynthesis. It is also used in the synthesis of many molecules, which form the building blocks of the cell. Some of the vital types of plastids and their functions are stated below: Leucoplasts They are found in the non-photosynthetic tissue of plants. They are used for the storage of protein, lipid and starch. Chromoplasts They are heterogeneous, colored plastid which is responsible for pigment synthesis and for storage in photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms. Chromoplasts have red-, orange- and yellow-colored pigments which provide color to all ripe fruits and flowers. Central Vacuole It occupies around 30% of the cell’s volume in a mature plant cell. Tonoplast is a membrane that surrounds the central vacuole. The vital function of the central vacuole apart from storage is to sustain turgor pressure against the cell wall. The central vacuole consists of cell sap. It is a mixture of salts, enzymes and other substances. Golgi Apparatus They are found in all eukaryotic cells, which are involved in distributing synthesized macromolecules to various parts of the cell. Ribosomes They are the smallest membrane-bound organelles which comprise RNA and protein. They are the sites for protein synthesis, hence, also referred to as the protein factories of the cell. Mitochondria They are the double-membraned organelles found in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells. They provide energy by breaking down carbohydrate and sugar molecules, hence they are also referred to as the “Powerhouse of the cell.” Lysosome Lysosomes are called suicidal bags as they hold digestive enzymes in an enclosed membrane. They perform the function of cellular waste disposal by digesting worn-out organelles, food particles and foreign bodies in the cell. In plants, the role of lysosomes is undertaken by the vacuoles. Chloroplasts It is an elongated organelle enclosed by phospholipid membrane. The chloroplast is shaped like a disc and the stroma is the fluid within the chloroplast that comprises a circular DNA. Each chloroplast contains a green colored pigment called chlorophyll required for the process of photosynthesis. The chlorophyll absorbs light energy from the sun and uses it to transform carbon dioxide and water into glucose. Structure of Chloroplast Chloroplasts are found in all higher plants. It is oval or biconvex, found within the mesophyll of the plant cell. The size of the chloroplast usually varies between 4-6 µm in diameter and 1-3 µm in thickness. They are double-membrane organelle with the presence of outer, inner and intermembrane space. There are two distinct regions present inside a chloroplast known as the grana and stroma. • Grana are made up of stacks of disc-shaped structures known as thylakoids or lamellae. The granum of the chloroplast consists of chlorophyll pigments and are the functional units of chloroplasts. • Stroma is the homogenous matrix which contains grana and is similar to the cytoplasm in cells in which all the organelles are embedded. Stroma also contains various enzymes, DNA, ribosomes, and other substances. Stroma lamellae function by connecting the stacks of thylakoid sacs or grana. The chloroplast structure consists of the following parts: Membrane Envelope It comprises inner and outer lipid bilayer membranes. The inner membrane separates the stroma from the intermembrane space. Intermembrane Space The space between inner and outer membranes. Thylakoid System (Lamellae) The system is suspended in the stroma. It is a collection of membranous sacs called thylakoids or lamellae. The green colored pigments called chlorophyll are found in the thylakoid membranes. It is the sight for the process of light-dependent reactions of the photosynthesis process. The thylakoids are arranged in stacks known as grana and each granum contains around 10-20 thylakoids. Stroma It is a colorless, alkaline, aqueous, protein-rich fluid present within the inner membrane of the chloroplast present surrounding the grana. Grana Stack of lamellae in plastids is known as grana. These are the sites of conversion of light energy into chemical energy. Chlorophyll It is a green photosynthetic pigment that helps in the process of photosynthesis. Functions of Chloroplast Following are the important chloroplast functions: • The most important function of the chloroplast is to synthesize food by the process of photosynthesis. • Absorbs light energy and converts it into chemical energy. • Chloroplast has a structure called chlorophyll which functions by trapping the solar energy and is used for the synthesis of food in all green plants. • Produces NADPH and molecular oxygen (O 2 ) by photolysis of water. • Produces ATP – Adenosine triphosphate by the process of photosynthesis. • The carbon dioxide (CO2) obtained from the air is used to generate carbon and sugar during the Calvin Cycle or dark reaction of photosynthesis. Mitochondria “Mitochondria are membrane-bound organelles present in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells, that produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the main energy molecule used by the cell.” What are Mitochondria? Popularly known as the “Powerhouse of the cell,” mitochondria (singular: mitochondrion) are a double membrane-bound organelle found in most eukaryotic organisms. They are found inside the cytoplasm and essentially function as the cell’s “digestive system.” They play a major role in breaking down nutrients and generating energy-rich molecules for the cell. Many of the biochemical reactions involved in cellular respiration take place within the mitochondria. The term ‘mitochondrion’ is derived from the Greek words “mitos” and “chondrion” which means “thread” and “granules-like”, respectively. It was first described by a German pathologist named Richard Altmann in the year 1890. Structure of Mitochondria • The mitochondrion is a double-membraned, rod-shaped structure found in both plant and animal cell. • Its size ranges from 0.5 to 1.0 micrometers in diameter. • The structure comprises an outer membrane, an inner membrane, and a gel-like material called the matrix. • The outer membrane and the inner membrane are made of proteins and phospholipid layers separated by the intermembrane space. • The outer membrane covers the surface of the mitochondrion and has a large number of special proteins known as porins. Cristae The inner membrane of mitochondria is rather complex in structure. It has many folds that form a layered structure called cristae, and this helps in increasing the surface area inside the organelle. The cristae and the proteins of the inner membrane aid in the production of ATP molecules. The inner mitochondrial membrane is strictly permeable only to oxygen and ATP molecules. A number of chemical reactions take place within the inner membrane of mitochondria. Mitochondrial Matrix The mitochondrial matrix is a viscous fluid that contains a mixture of enzymes and proteins. It also comprises ribosomes, inorganic ions, mitochondrial DNA, nucleotide cofactors, and organic molecules. The enzymes present in the matrix play an important role in the synthesis of ATP molecules. Functions of Mitochondria The most important function of mitochondria is to produce energy through the process of oxidative phosphorylation. It is also involved in the following process: 1. Regulates the metabolic activity of the cell 2. Promotes the growth of new cells and cell multiplication 3. Helps in detoxifying ammonia in the liver cells 4. Plays an important role in apoptosis or programmed cell death 5. Responsible for building certain parts of the blood and various hormones like testosterone and estrogen 6. Helps in maintaining an adequate concentration of calcium ions within the compartments of the cell 7. It is also involved in various cellular activities like cellular differentiation, cell signaling, cell senescence, controlling the cell cycle and in cell growth. Disorders Associated with Mitochondria Any irregularity in the way mitochondria function can directly affect human health, but often, it is difficult to identify because symptoms differ from person to person. Disorders of the mitochondria can be quite severe; in some cases, they can even cause an organ to fail.

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