Chalk was formed during the Cretaceous period of the Mesozoic era, what type of organisms form chalk?

Shells of tiny marine life and marine algae known as Coccoliths

Geographical Forces 1 (The South Downs The North Downs and The Weald)

Continental Drift Theory. From the discussion of the rock cycle, it has been pointed out that through Earth's external and internal processes. Earth's surface is constantly changing. However, this idea of a changing environment did not conform with the belief of earlier scientists. Rather, they thought that the geographic positions of ocean basins and continents have been static since the beginning of time. It was around the 1500s when Leonardo da Vinci, upon his discovery of fossil seashells found at the high mountains of Italy, first thought of the idea that the areas where mountains are located may have been oceans in the past. Through time, other fossils of marine organisms found far above the current sea level further supported the idea that mountains were uplifted and weathering wore them down. At around the 1800s, most scientists have accepted the idea that Earth's crust is undergoing large vertical movements or uplifting. There was also evidence of possible horizontal movements, but the scientists then were not convinced about it. Alfred Wegener showed evidence of horizontal or lateral movement of the continents in his continental drift theory. According to him, the continents have drifted around the world and have once formed a giant landmass or supercontinent called Pangaea. To support his theory, Alfred Wegener presented a set of geographical, biological, and climatic evidence.Wegener's geographical evidence included the jigsaw puzzle fit of the current continents. He pointed out that the coastlines of South America and Africa seem to fit together. He also pointed the presence of mountain ranges having similar rock types and age but separated by vast oceans, like that of the folded rocks of the Caledonian mountains. The same folded rocks run through West Africa, North America, Newfoundland, Ireland, Wales, Scotland, Greenland, and Norway, all of which are now separated by the Atlantic Ocean. A geographical evidence on the similar rock types in West Africa, North America, Greenland, and Europe is found. The biological evidence came in the discovery of similar plant and animal fossils in different continents separated by oceans. The animal fossils of Mesosaurus and Lystrosaurus indicate that they were not capable of crossing the oceans to reach the other continents. If they were, the fossils should have been more widely distributed Africa, Australia, India, and South America were too large to be carried by wind. This indicates that the areas where the fossils were found were closely linked. It has also been found out that the plant only grew in areas with subpolar climate, which would indicate that the landmasses were located near the South Pole.Lastly, for his climatic evidence, Wegener discovered that a glacial period occurred during the late Paleozoic era in Southern Africa, South America, Australia, and India. The initial explanation for this event was global cooling, but it was rejected because large tropical swamps with so much vegetation were found at the same time in the Northern Hemisphere. This further supported the idea that the supercontinent was indeed near the South Pole, and the continents in Northern Hemisphere were once near the equator. The glacial period also left glacial striations, or the scratches glaciers make as they move across on the underlying bedrock, on the aforementioned continents. For such an event to happen, the continents would have to be connected. SCIENCE PIONEER. Alfred Wegener (1880-1930). Alfred Wegener was a German polar researcher, geophysicist, and meteorologist. He was known for his work on the continental drift theory. In his effort to defend his work, he went to the Greenland ice sheet where he died.Even with all the compelling evidence, the continental drift theory hardly convinced the scientific community at that time because Wegener was unable to identify a credible mechanism that drives the continental drift. He was unable to clearly explain how the continents moved and how the larger continents broke through the ocean floor. Eventually, critics of the continental drift began to accept the theory when new evidence supporting the theory was discovered. The new evidence led to a more encompassing theory the theory of plate tectonics. This theory provided a more convincing explanation as to how the continents moved. The evidence that paved the way for the theory of plate tectonics was the idea of wandering poles. Scientists began studying volcanic rocks to determine the location of the magnetic poles. When volcanic rocks crystallize, the minerals with magnetic properties align themselves parallel to Earth's magnetic field at the time the minerals were formed. This finding allowed scientists to determine the polarity of Earth's magnetic field and the magnetic inclination that showed the location of the poles. Upon studying the paleomagnetism of the rocks, geophysicists found out that rocks from various locations point to different magnetic north poles, suggesting that the poles have wandered. Since movement of magnetic poles is very unlikely, scientists have accepted the idea that the continents are indeed moving. And if the continents are moving, scientists thought that maybe the ocean basins are moving too. They also discovered that some rocks showed magnetic reversals, which led them to believe that the magnetic north pole now was not always the magnetic north pole. Seafloor Spreading. After World War II, exploration on the ocean floor became the focus of many geologic studies. It was only then that the ocean ridge system was discovered. A geologist in Princeton University named Harry Hess, along with other scientists, studied this ocean ridge system and hypothesized that the oceanic crust was moving away from the ridge. His hypothesis, known as seafloor spreading, showed that the ocean floor is split along the ridge where the magma rises to form the new ocean floor.Because of this, rocks located near the ridge are younger than those that are located magnetic polarity of Earth is also preserved in those rocks. Withe ridge scientists were able to see the magnetic reversals in the ocean floor, and they were able to make use of information to determine that the ocean floor is moving at a rate of about 10 cm per year. Plate Tectonics. Confirmation of the seafloor spreading hypothesis proved that continents are not moving above the ocean floor. Rather, it is the fragments of the lithosphere. The lithosphere is the rigid layer that is composed of the uppermost mantle and the crust that carry the continents and the ocean basins along. These fragments of the lithosphere are called plates. Underneath the lithosphere is a weaker region in the mantle known as asthenosphere that behaves like a fluid. Thus, the lithosphere floats above the asthenosphere, making it detached and free to move. This became the basis of the theory of plate tectonics. Now that it has been made clear that it is the plates which are moving, the question as to how they move remained. Sir Arthur Holmes proposed the driving force for this plate movement in 1919. He suggested that the movement in the mantle carries the plates along. It was previously discussed that Earth's interior is very hot due to the heat produced by radioactive decay. Convection takes place in the mantle, keeping the asthenosphere hot and weak. The convection currents produced in the asthenosphere are the ones carrying the lithospheric plates and making them move. However, convection currents are not enough. Mechanisms such as ridge push and slab pull aid the convection currents to slowly move the lithospheric plates. Ridge push occurs at mid ocean ridges which are higher in elevation than the surrounding trenches and abyssal plains. The new ocean floor from the ridge is hot and relatively thin. As it moves away from the ridge, it cools down and gets denser, heavier, and thicker. Below this cooling ocean floor is the asthenosphere, which is less dense. This area becomes a massive shear zone and the new ocean floor will effectively slide down the slope of the asthenosphere. When the plate collides with another plate with lesser density, the denser plate sinks and a subduction zone is formed. When the subducting plate sinks, it pulls on the rest of the plate behind it. These mechanisms explain the movement of the plates.Earth has seven major lithospheric plates that account for 94% of Earth's surface. These are the North American Plate, South American Plate, Pacific Plate, African Plate, Eurasian Plate, Indo-Australian Plate, and Antarctic Plate. These plates are constantly moving relative to the other plates. Thus, the interaction of plates occurs mostly along the boundaries. These movements are plotted using information from earthquakes and volcanic activities. There are three main types of plate boundaries: convergent, divergent, and transform boundaries Convergent boundaries are boundaries where two plates move towards each other A convergent boundary is also known as destructive margin since this is where the collision between two plates occhins. There are three types of convergence-oceanic oceanic, oceanic-continental, and continental-continental. Trenches are features of the ocean floor that are present in both oceanic-oceanic boundary and oceanic-continental boundary. Subduction occurs at the trenches, therefore, these are characterized as the deepest parts of Earth. A divergent boundary is the opposite of convergent boundary: two plates move away from each other. Divergent boundaries create new crust; thus, they are also known as constructive margins. The ocean ridge system is a divergent boundary where new ocean floor is produced as magma rises, pushing the older rocks aside.Transform boundary is also known as conservative plate margin since two plates just move past one another, neither creating nor destroying land. Earthquake epicenters are usually detected at transform boundaries because the rocks tend to break and not fold or sink, like in convergent boundaries. Evolution of the Ocean Basins. Both the movement of the plates and seafloor are responsible for the evolution of ocean basins. Along the divergent boundary where ocean ridge systems are found, magma is released and new ocean floor is created. Along convergent boundaries, the ocean floor is being destroyed. The evolution of the ocean basins started during the time when Pangaea was still present and was surrounded by the vast ocean or superocean known as Panthalassa, also called Paleo-Pacific or "old Pacific." Upon the initial break up of Pangaea into Laurasia and Gondwanaland, the Tethys Sea began to form. Then, the Eurasian and North about, forming the North Atlantic. The South Atlantic only started to form when the African Plate and South American Plate separated. The continued movement of the plates created the Himalayas at one side and separated the Pacific Ocean and Atlantic Ocean at the other side, which consequently formed the current ocean basins. Both the movement of the plates and seafloor are responsible for the evolution of ocean basins. Along the divergent boundary where ocean ridge systems are found, magma is released and new ocean floor is created. Along convergent boundaries, the ocean floor is being destroyed. The evolution of the ocean basins started during the time when Pangaea was still present and was surrounded by the vast ocean or superocean known as Panthalassa, also called Paleo-Pacific or "old Pacific." Upon the initial break up of Pangaea into Laurasia and Gondwanaland, the Tethys Sea began to form. Then, the Eurasian and North about, forming the North Atlantic. The South Atlantic only started to form when the African Plate and South American Plate separated. The continued movement of the plates created the Himalayas at one side and separated the Pacific Ocean and Atlantic Ocean at the other side, which consequently formed the current ocean basins.Continents do not immediately end at the point where the ocean meets the land. They may extend slightly into the oceans. The portion of the continent that is submerged is called continental margin. There are two types of continental margin: passive margin and active margin. A passive continental margin consists of a continental shelf, continental slope, and continental rise. It is not associated with plate boundaries; thus, there are very little tectonic activities. An active continental margin only has a continental shelf and a continental slope. It is associated with plate boundaries; thus, a main feature of this boundary is a trench. The different features of a continental margin are the following: 1. The continental shelf is the gently-sloping submerged portion of the continent. 2. The continental slope is the steep slope after the continental shelf. It is still part of the continent. 3. The continental rise is the gently-sloping area after the continental slope and before the ocean floor. 4. The trenches are the deepest parts of the ocean. These are narrow depressions caused by the subduction of the ocean floor along the convergent boundaries. 5. The mid-oceanic ridge is the mountain range system in the ocean. It is responsible for the production of new ocean floor. This is the region where new magma constantly emerges from. SCIENCE CAREER. A scientific illustrator uses art to inform and communicate complex details and concepts of science. He/She makes use of scientifically informed observations and research along with his/her technical art and aesthetic skills to make accurate representations. In Natural History, the scientific illustrators recreate how the extinct species look like by working with scientists and fossil records. Moreover, with the advances in technology, illustrators are now into 3D modelling, animation, and video making. Earth's History. All the processes that have been discussed require long periods of time to create a noticeable change on Earth's surface. You can just imagine how long it would take to create an oceanas vast as the Pacific Ocean if the ocean floor moves only at about 10 cm/year. It is then important to know the history of Earth to learn the complexities of its past and be able to use it to understand the present. Just like learning the history of a country that requires one to read a lot of books, learning the history of Earth involves studying a lot of rocks. Rocks, especially sedimentary rocks, contain a lot of information about Earth's past. It holds the key to most of the geologic processes that happened on Earth and the key to uncovering how life on Earth evolved. But these discoveries are worthless if there is no time perspective. Thus, one of the most important contributions of geologists to mankind is the geologic time scale, which holds a history that is exceedingly long.

Between 1775 and 1782 (the years of the American Revolution) a smallpox epidemic spread across North America. By 1782, the disease had reached the villages of the Mandans and Hidatsas. The death rate was very high. The Dakotas attacked the weakened Mandan villages including On-a-slant village (today the villiage is in Fort Lincoln State Park) and Double Ditch village. By 1790, the survivors (of both disease and war) left the Heart River area and moved north to establish villages near Painted Woods Creek and at the mouth of the Knife River. The Mandans who had once occupied six large villages now lived in two small villages. There were only two remaining Hidatsa villages and another village where both Mandans and Hidatsas lived. The populations of the two tribes had been reduced by 75 percent. The Mandans and Hidatsas also suffered cultural losses because of the smallpox outbreaks. The Mandan villages had always shared some common cultural traits, but each village had a slightly different language. As the survivors were forced to move together for security, the differences disappeared. There were similar cultural losses for the Hidatsas. The Arikaras who lived farther south along the Missouri River also experienced the smallpox epidemic. By 1790, the Arikaras had been reduced from a large population living in 32 villages to a group that occupied two villages. Only 500 men of military age remained of the 4,000 Arikara warriors who had protected their villages in previous decades. In 1801, smallpox struck the people of the northern Great Plains again. This time, the epidemic killed fewer people. It is possible that the survivors of the 1782 epidemic were still immune to the virus this time. In 1830, the Army identified smallpox as a dangerous disease at Indian agencies on the lower Missouri River (in modern-day Missouri, Kansas, and Nebraska). The Secretary of War, L. G. Randolph, authorized Indian agents to hire doctors to vaccinate American Indians living at the agencies. However, these agents were not ordered to vaccinate Indians. Many mothers feared the vaccine. They had seen many babies become sick because doctors did not use sterile procedures (which were unknown at the time). Sometimes vaccine was not effective and the children became sick anyway. For a variety of reasons, the Army’s vaccination campaign did little to stop smallpox epidemics among the Indians of the frontier. Indian agents on the frontier were concerned about smallpox. Non-Indian settlers were approaching the lands where the tribes lived. Disease was spreading and the agents begged the Office of Indian Affairs (part of the War Department) to provide vaccine for Indians. Finally, in 1832, Congress passed the Indian Vaccination Act. The bill appropriated $12,000 to purchase vaccine and hire doctors to vaccinate Indians. Exactly which tribes would be vaccinated was not specified in the bill. Secretary of War Lewis Cass, who administered the program, decided that the vaccination program would be extended to tribes that were friendly to the United States, those with important economic roles, and those tribes (Cherokee, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Creek, and Seminole) that were being forced out of southern states to relocation sites in the West. Cass specifically excluded the Mandans, Hidatsas, and Arikaras (along with other tribes living farther up the river) from the vaccination program. Cass believed the fur trade on the Upper Missouri River was no longer economically important. He also stated that the treaties that all three tribes signed in 1825 identified them as hostile towards the U. S. and its citizens. (See Document 1.) Other tribes, including the Teton Sioux (Lakotas) did not have such statements in their treaties. Cass excluded the Upper Missouri tribes from vaccination because he considered them to be far removed (both geographically and socially) from “civilized man.”

Health 11/12 Review for Final Exam Core Concepts - Mental and Emotional Health, Substance Abuse Prevention, Safety and Violence Prevention, Family Life and Human Sexuality, Disease Prevention and Control, Healthy Eating Health Education Skills - goal setting, decision making, accessing information/resources, analyzing influences, communication, self-management, advocacy DIMENSIONS of Wellness - social, spiritual, emotional/mental, environmental, financial, intellectual, multicultural, occupational, physical, sexual RISK factors - anything that increases the risk of disease, injury, or illness. PROTECTIVE factors - anything that decreases the risk of disease, injury, or illness. INTERNAL health factors - health factors that can be either hereditary and genetic or acquired elements -- include smoking and personal diet or eating habits. Example – a genetic predisposition to an illness. EXTERNAL health factors - health factors that are part of the direct outer environment, the geographical location, micro-organisms, socio-economic elements that could affect an individual's health. Example – being unable to afford mental health services. Unit 1- Managing Personal and Community Wellness Explain Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs in your own words using the image provided. Explain how each Social Determinant of Health may impact a person’s health. Levels of Disease Prevention • PRIMARY The goal is to avoid conditions altogether. • SECONDARY The goal is early detection. • TERTIARY The goal is to minimize the damage (manage). Define the following terms. Fads/Trends Sleep hygiene Driver safety Unit 2- Investigating Social Ecological Factors on Well-Being Socio-Ecological Model – The SEM examines how health behaviors form based on characteristics of individuals, communities, nations and levels in between. Each level overlaps with other levels signifying how the best public health strategies are those that encompass and target a wide range of perspectives. Interpersonal (personal) health vs. intrapersonal (relationship) health Health INEQUITY - systemic, ingrained and unjust barriers that prevent segments of the population from having the opportunity of health leading to health disparity. IMPLICIT BIAS - a form of bias that occurs automatically and unintentionally, that nevertheless affects judgments, decisions, and behaviors. Research has shown implicit bias can contribute to unequal access to quality healthcare, negative patient-provider relationships and interactions; and create mistrust in the healthcare system and practitioners among patients. This can contribute to health disparities. Health DISPARITY - represents a difference in health between populations. It is often used to describe disease burden and other negative health outcomes socially disadvantaged groups may face. Health EQUITY - The opposite of health inequity. It describes a system that supports a high standard of health and healthcare for all people. Racism - Beliefs, attitudes, institutional arrangements, and acts that tend to denigrate individuals or groups because of phenotypic characteristics or ethnic group affiliation. DISCRIMINATION - An unjust differential treatment of a person or a group. PRIVILEGE- The unearned access to resources and social power that are only available to some because of their membership within certain social groups. OPPRESSION is the act of taking away choices from others and can be defined as a system that maintains advantage and disadvantage based on social identities and that acts on multiple levels from interpersonal to institutional and societal. (internalized, interpersonal, institutional, structural) Systematic Oppression - Intentional disadvantage of groups of people based on their identity while advantaging members of dominant group (race, gender, sexual orientation, language, size, ability, etc.). Intersectionality - The complex, cumulative way in which the effects of multiple forms of discrimination (such as racism, sexism, and classism) combine, overlap, or intersect especially in the experiences of marginalized individuals or groups Unit 3- Accessing Resources and Communicating to Support Mental and Emotional Health What is anger? What is anxiety? What is stress? STRESSORS are the things that cause stress. Stressors can be internal and external. A stressor may be a one-time or short-term occurrence, or it can happen repeatedly over a long time. INTERNAL Stressors - are made by your belief system and the way you evaluate yourself. Examples include pessimistic attitude, negative self-talk, deep need to be perfect, low self-esteem or body image, unhealthy standards for self. EXTERNAL Stressors - are stressful things that happen in your surroundings and/or in your environment. Examples include busy schedules, work problems, family issues, financial trouble, social problems, injury, unforeseen circumstances. Socio-economic issues are also a part of external stressors such as poverty, violence, and racism. Define the following mental health conditions. Depression Eating disorders NSSI Non-suicidal self-injury Grief/Loss Suicide prevention A.C.T. • ACKNOWLEDGE- Tell them in a caring way that you recognize that they are having a problem • CARE- You can show you care by actively listening - put away anything else you are doing, make eye contact, sit down, ask questions. • TELL-(call 988 for additional help and support) - Tell them it is important that they speak with a trusted adult. Help them figure out who this may be and offer to go with your friend. A social norm is an unwritten, informal rule meant to guide behavior among the of society. It distinguishes between acceptable and unacceptable, good and bad, and so on. Social norms can influence a person with emotional or mental health disorders, access to care and stigmatize their situation. STIGMA- a mark of disgrace associated with a particular circumstance, quality, or person. • Self-stigma - This describes the internalized stigma that people with mental health conditions feel about themselves. • Public stigma - This refers to the negative attitudes around mental health from people in society. • Institutional stigma - This is a type of systemic stigma that arises from corporations, governments, and other institutions. Unit 4- Evaluating Risks of Substance Use and Abuse Harm Reduction - a set of practical strategies and ideas aimed at reducing negative consequences associated with drug use. Explain how each level of the Social Ecological Model is impacted by addiction. Individual Relationship Community Society SEM Level Contributing/Risk Factors to substance use Preventative/Protective Factors for substance use Individual Interpersonal/Relationship Community Society Unit 5- Analyzing Influences to Examine Ways to Increase Safety and Reduce Violence HATE CRIME - a crime, usually violent, motivated by prejudice or intolerance toward an individual’s national origin, ethnicity, color, religion, gender, gender identity, sexual orientation, or disability. Explain how the media influences violence in society. The Pyramid of Hate Explain the escalation of hate using the Pyramid of Hate visual. List several hate crime motivators. Example: age HEALTHY Relationship Signs - comfortable pace, trust, honesty, independence, respect, equality, kindness, taking responsibility, healthy conflict, fun UNHEALTHY Relationship Signs - intensity, possessiveness, manipulation, isolation, sabotage, belittling, guilting, volatility, deflecting responsibility, betrayal Sexual Assault is a sexual behavior WITHOUT consent. Human trafficking - the recruitment, harboring, transportation, provision, or obtaining of a person for labor or services, using force, fraud, or coercion for the purpose of subjection to involuntary servitude, peonage, debt bondage, or slavery. Sex trafficking - commercial sex act induced by force, fraud, or coercion, or in which the person induced to perform such an act has not attained 18 years of age. Trafficking happens using… • Force - using violence to control someone. • Fraud - using lies to control someone. • Coercion - using threats to control someone. Unit 6- Family Life and Human Sexuality Agency - A belief about yourself and the extent to which you can act on that belief. • The ability to choose freely one’s own narrative. • To embrace the idea that I am the cause (or agent) of my own thoughts and actions. • Personal agency is a personal responsibility for who we are, what we experience, what we do about that experience, and how we shape our world to give us more of the experiences we want. SEXUAL Agency • The ability to choose your own interests and desires vs. what we see in the media or others’ perceptions • The ability to identify, communicate, and negotiate one’s sexual needs • The ability to initiate behaviors that allow for the satisfaction of those needs Sexually Explicit Material - photographs, videos, films, magazines, and books whose primary themes, topics, or depictions involve sexuality that may cause sexual arousal. Sexual scripts - thoughts, patterns, or behavior that a person has about themselves in a romantic or sexual context. It is how people picture themselves or want to project themselves in front of others. Reproductive Rights of Teens - In Maryland, teens have the right to an abortion, keep their child, obtain and use birth control, paternity tests, adoption, give up custody of their child within 10 days of birth (Safe Haven Law). • REPRODUCTIVE RIGHTS- legal rights and the freedom of the individual to control decisions regarding contraception, abortion, sterilization and childbirth. • SAFE HAVEN LAW- a distressed parent who is unable or unwilling to care for their infant can safely give up custody of their baby, no questions asked. CONSENT is an agreement between participants to engage in sexual activity. • It is clearly and freely communicated, verbal, and affirmative. Consent CANNOT be given if… • A person is underage, one or both partners is intoxicated or incapacitated by drugs or alcohol, one partner is asleep or unconscious, one partner feels pressured, threatened or intimidated, or one partner holds a position of power or authority over the other. Unit 7- Advocating for Enhanced Nutrition, Food Systems, and Health Outcomes Dietary Guidelines for Americans Guideline 1: Follow a Healthy Dietary Pattern at Every Life Stage Guideline 2: Customize and Enjoy Food and Beverage Choices to Reflect Personal Preferences, Cultural Traditions, and Budgetary Considerations Guideline 3: Focus on Meeting Food Group Needs with Nutrient-Dense Foods and Beverages, and Stay Within Calorie Limits Guideline 4: Limit Foods and Beverages Higher in Added Sugars, Saturated Fat, and Sodium, and Limit Alcoholic Beverages FOOD DESERT- a neighborhood where there is little or limited access to healthy and affordable food such as fruits, vegetables, whole grains, low-fat milk and other foods that make up the full range of a healthy diet. FOOD INSEQURITY lack of access to a sufficient amount of food because of limited funds. More than 49 million American households are considered food insecure and are vulnerable to poor health as a result. PROCCESED FOODS- any raw agricultural commodities that have been washed, cleaned, milled, cut, chopped, heated, pasteurized, blanched, cooked, canned, frozen, dried, dehydrated, mixed or packaged — anything done to them that alters their natural state.

Think about the geography and location of the city or town you live in. Are there bodies of water like rivers and lakes or a coast nearby? Perhaps you live in a place with vast open fields suitable for farming or raising livestock. The natural environment is important when understanding how cities and towns developed. The earliest North American colonies depended on their natural environment. The type of soil, climate, length of seasons, and proximity to bodies of water all played a role in how each colony prospered. By the 1700’s, the American colonies grew into three distinct regions. The New England, Middle, and Southern regions each had different geographical and cultural characteristics that determined the development of their economy, society, and relationships to each other. The New England Colonies included Connecticut, Rhode Island, Massachusetts, and New Hampshire. The geography of this region featured dense forests and hills. Combined with the hard rocky land, cold climate and long winters, New England was a poor area for large farming operations. However, many colonists known as "yeoman farmers" had small family-owned farms that grew a variety of crops. Many other colonists relied on fishing and whaling off the New England coast. Others settled in small towns and became craftsmen or merchants. The forests provided excellent lumber for building boats and homes for the growing population. Many of the settlers to the New England Colonies were Puritans, hardworking, and very religious. Close families and strong communities were very important to them. The Middle Colonies included Pennsylvania, Delaware, New York, and New Jersey. The geography of this region featured a warmer climate with fertile soil, flat land, easily navigable rivers, and wide valleys making it perfect for farming and growing crops. Wealthy farmers grew cash crops and raised livestock. Mining and trading were also important aspects of the economy here. Over time, cities grew, and urban merchants sold and traded goods with people throughout the other colonies. Compared to other regions, the people of the middle colonies supported religious freedom and tolerance and had a diverse population with settlers arriving from many areas in Europe. The Southern Colonies included the first English colony of Virginia, and grew to include Maryland, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. The geography included rich, fertile soil with broad coastal plains that made it possible for large plantations to grow tobacco, rice, and indigo. Most of these plantations featured a labor force of enslaved Black people. These enslaved men, women, and children had few, if any, rights and often saw their families torn apart at the whim of the plantation owner. Enslaved children were even put to work as young as age three, weeding fields, carrying drinking water, or helping in the home. Smaller farms owned by subsistence farmers also existed across the Southern Colonies. Often, the people working these would grow crops for their families with little left over to sell or trade. Indentured servants also arrived in the South who would work for 5-7 years in exchange for their passage to North America. The Church of England (also known as the Anglican Church) was the dominant religion in the region. Most settlers to the South did not come for religious freedom like they did in the northern colonies. Therefore, they often maintained their allegiance to the established Church of England.

Seafloor spreading is a geologic process in which tectonic plates—large slabs of Earth's lithosphere—split apart from each other. Seafloor spreading and other tectonic activity processes are the result of mantle convection. Mantle convection is the slow, churning motion of Earth’s mantle. Convection currents carry heat from the lower mantle and core to the lithosphere. Convection currents also “recycle” lithospheric materials back to the mantle. Seafloor spreading occurs at divergent plate boundaries. As tectonic plates slowly move away from each other, heat from the mantle’s convection currents makes the crust more plastic and less dense. The less-dense material rises, often forming a mountain or elevated area of the seafloor. Eventually, the crust cracks. Hot magma fueled by mantle convection bubbles up to fill these fractures and spills onto the crust. This bubbled-up magma is cooled by frigid seawater to form igneous rock. This rock (basalt) becomes a new part of Earth’s crust. Mid-Ocean Ridges Seafloor spreading occurs along mid-ocean ridges—large mountain ranges rising from the ocean floor. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge, for instance, separates the North American plate from the Eurasian plate, and the South American plate from the African plate. The East Pacific Rise is a mid-ocean ridge that runs through the eastern Pacific Ocean and separates the Pacific plate from the North American plate, the Cocos plate, the Nazca plate, and the Antarctic plate. The Southeast Indian Ridge marks where the southern Indo-Australian plate forms a divergent boundary with the Antarctic plate. Seafloor spreading is not consistent at all mid-ocean ridges. Slowly spreading ridges are the sites of tall, narrow underwater cliffs and mountains. Rapidly spreading ridges have a much more gentle slopes. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge, for instance, is a slow spreading center. It spreads 2-5 centimeters (.8-2 inches) every year and forms an ocean trench about the size of the Grand Canyon. The East Pacific Rise, on the other hand, is a fast spreading center. It spreads about 6-16 centimeters (3-6 inches) every year. There is not an ocean trench at the East Pacific Rise, because the seafloor spreading is too rapid for one to develop! The newest, thinnest crust on Earth is located near the center of mid-ocean ridge—the actual site of seafloor spreading. The age, density, and thickness of oceanic crust increases with distance from the mid-ocean ridge. Geomagnetic Reversals The magnetism of mid-ocean ridges helped scientists first identify the process of seafloor spreading in the early 20th century. Basalt, the once-molten rock that makes up most new oceanic crust, is a fairly magnetic substance, and scientists began using magnetometers to measure the magnetism of the ocean floor in the 1950s. What they discovered was that the magnetism of the ocean floor around mid-ocean ridges was divided into matching “stripes” on either side of the ridge. The specific magnetism of basalt rock is determined by the Earth’s magnetic field when the magma is cooling. Scientists determined that the same process formed the perfectly symmetrical stripes on both side of a mid-ocean ridge. The continual process of seafloor spreading separated the stripes in an orderly pattern. Geographic Features Oceanic crust slowly moves away from mid-ocean ridges and sites of seafloor spreading. As it moves, it becomes cooler, denser, and thicker. Eventually, older oceanic crust encounters a tectonic boundary with continental crust. Keeping Earth in Shape Seafloor spreading is just one part of plate tectonics. Subduction is another. Subduction happens where tectonic plates crash into each other instead of spreading apart. At subduction zones, the edge of the denser plate subducts, or slides, beneath the less-dense one. The denser lithospheric material then melts back into the Earth's mantle. Seafloor spreading creates new crust. Subduction destroys old crust. The two forces roughly balance each other, so the shape and diameter of the Earth remain constant.

Industry of Southeast Asia Industrialization in Southeast Asia is a relatively recent phenomenon, much of the development having occurred only since the early 1960s. As mentioned above, industrialization policies have been critical goals in the market economies of the ASEAN countries; and, in all of them except Brunei, industry’s share of the GDP has grown considerably. The most significant increases have occurred in Singapore, Thailand, and the Philippines. Manufacturing in particular has accounted for the greatest changes, with Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand making especially large gains during the 1980s. Small factories dominate, both in terms of the number of companies and the number of workers employed. Agricultural processing is most important in virtually all nations. The notable exception is Singapore, where the manufacture of a variety of products, headed by electrical and electronic and transport equipment, is dominant. In Thailand, Myanmar, and the Philippines, textiles and clothing are significant, as is the chemical industry in Thailand and Indonesia. Light, labour-intensive goods, such as electrical and electronic products, are increasingly important. It is in the manufacture of these products and textiles that the most employment has been gained. Tin is the most important metallic mineral in the region in terms of value, and Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia account for more than half of world production. In Malaysia and elsewhere, however, alluvial lodes are becoming depleted, and the remaining concentrations are less economical to mine. Fluctuating market prices have also discouraged tin production. Nickel, copper, and chromite are also mined, although the quantities produced in the region are minor in terms of world production. Southeast Asia has considerable reserves of oil and natural gas, notably in Indonesia, Malaysia, and Brunei. Trade Given Southeast Asia’s strategic location and the early development of trade there, it is not surprising that trade is especially important to all nations in the region. The value of regional trade is about one-third that of the United States. Most striking is the almost total dominance of trade by the market economies. Exports, as a percentage of the GDP, are small in Cambodia, Myanmar, Vietnam, and Laos and moderately so in Thailand, the Philippines, and Indonesia. Countries with a relatively large proportion of export trade are Singapore, Malaysia, and Brunei. Composition of exports is important. In this respect, Indonesia—the trade structure of which long has been dominated by oil—has been relatively successful in diversifying its exports toward plywood, rattan, coffee, rubber, and textiles. Conversely, Malaysia, with a trade pattern of exporting palm oil, tropical hardwoods, and tin, now derives the majority of its export income from petroleum products. This revenue has been used to build up the country’s industrial base. Thailand exhibits a much less diverse export structure, where food and manufactured goods account for nearly all of its total trade. Likewise, Brunei relies almost entirely on its petroleum exports. Singapore, however, has utilized its unique geographic position and highly educated labour force to attract multinational corporations. As a result, investment in the manufacturing and, increasingly, service sectors has greatly expanded. Intraregional trade among the ASEAN members, while important, accounts for only about one-fifth of Southeast Asia’s total trade. Philippine trade within the region is especially small, reflecting its long-term orientation toward the United States. Far more important, therefore, is the trade with countries outside the region, dominated by that with Japan, Europe, and the United States; increasingly significant, however, is the trade with Taiwan, China (especially Hong Kong), and South Korea.

Geographical features in England

Geographical Conditions

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