Los planos cartesianos en los mapas del pirata

En la clasificación científica de los seres vivos, los animales (Animalia) o metazoos (Metazoa) constituyen un reino que reúne un amplio grupo de organismos que son eucariotas, heterótrofos, pluricelulares y tisulares (excepto los poríferos). Se caracterizan por su amplia capacidad de movimiento, por no tener cloroplasto (aunque hay excepciones, como en el caso de Elysia chlorotica) ni pared celular, y por su desarrollo embrionario; que atraviesa una fase de blástula y determina un plan corporal fijo (aunque muchas especies pueden sufrir una metamorfosis posterior como los artrópodos). Los animales forman un grupo natural estrechamente emparentado con los hongos (reino Fungi). Animalia es uno de los cinco reinos del dominio Eukaryota, y a él pertenece el ser humano. La parte de la biología que estudia los animales es la zoología. Los filos animales más conocidos aparecen en el registro fósil durante la denominada explosión cámbrica, sucedida en los mares hace unos 542 a 530 millones de años. Los animales se dividen en varios subgrupos, algunos de los cuales son vertebrados: (aves, mamíferos, anfibios, reptiles, peces) e invertebrados: artrópodos (insectos, arácnidos, miriápodos, crustáceos), anélidos (lombrices, sanguijuelas), moluscos (bivalvos, gasterópodos, cefalópodos), poríferos (esponjas), cnidarios (medusas, pólipos, corales), equinodermos (estrellas de mar), nematodos (gusanos cilíndricos), platelmintos (gusanos planos), etc.

TIPOS DE PLANES QUE PUEDES UTILIZAR PRIORIZACIÓN DE LOS PLANES DE ACCIÓN

Y9Sp 3.1H Hablando del tiempo libre y de los planes

LATINOAMÉRICA Comienzan las celebraciones previas a Navidad Las fiestas navideñas resaltan la riqueza cultural de cada país latinoamericano, donde hay mezcla de tradiciones heredadas de Europa y costumbres locales. En México, el día 16 comienzan las “posadas”, en las que las familias simbolizan el peregrinaje de José y María. Hay procesiones, canciones y una mezcla de piñatas, luces y dulces. En la gastronomía destacan platillos tales como tamales, ponche de frutas y buñuelos. En Colombia comenzaron con el Día de las Velitas, el pasado día 7: familias y comunidades encienden velas y faroles en honor a la Virgen María. El día 16 inician la Novena de Aguinaldos, donde se cantan villancicos. En cuanto a los platos típicos están la natilla, los buñuelos y las empanadas de carne. En Perú son muy comunes las ferias de artesanía en las plazas de muchísimas ciudades. Uno de los lugares más antiguos es la feria conocida como Santurantikuy, en Cuzco, que se celebra desde el siglo XVI. En América del Sur, en Argentina o Chile, la Navidad coincide con el verano, por lo que las celebraciones se adaptan a un clima caluroso. El asado, unido a las ensaladas y al vitel toné es la cena principal en Argentina.

Mis Planes y los de Mi Familia

Podemos representar la Tierra de cinco formas. El globo terráqueo : es una esfera, una Tierra en miniatura. Se pueden ver los océanos, los mares, los continentes, los países, las islas… Para situarse precisamente en la superficie del planeta, el hombre ha dibujado líneas imaginarias: los meridianos y los paralelos.• Los meridianos: son líneas verticales, van del Polo Norte al Polo Sur. Hay 360. • Los paralelos: son círculos horizontales, están a la misma distancia unos de otros, y son paralelos al ecuador que es el más grande (mide 40 000 km), divide la Tierra en dos hemisferios: el hemisferio norte y el hemisferio sur. También existen dos círculos muy importantes: el trópico de Cáncer en el hemisferio norte y el trópico de Capricornio en el hemisferio sur. El mapamundi: muestra la totalidad de la Tierra de forma plana. Puede ser físico (muestra los ríos, los mares, los océanos, las montañas, etc.) o político (muestra las fronteras entre países). También se llama planisferio terrestre. El mapa: es una representación gráfica en dos dimensiones de un lugar de la Tierra (continente, isla, país, región…). El plano: es la representación gráfica de una zona pequeña (ciudad, barrio, casa…) y tiene muchos detalles (calles, plazas, carreteras…). La imagen satélite : es una foto de la Tierra tomada desde el espacio.

Ions Ions are charged substances that have formed through the gain or loss of electrons. Cations form from the loss of electrons and have a positive charge while anions form through the gain of electrons and have a negative charge. Cation Formation Cations are the positive ions formed by the loss of one or more electrons. The most commonly formed cations of the representative elements are those that involve the loss of all of the valence electrons. Consider the alkali metal sodium (Na) . It has one valence electron in the n=3 energy level. Upon losing that electron, the sodiu ion now has an octet of electrons from the second energy level and a charge of 1+ . The electron arrangement of the sodium ion is now the same as that of the noble gas neon. Consider a similar process with magnesium and aluminum. In this case, the magnesium atom loses its two valence electrons in order to achieve the same arrangement as the noble gas neon and a charge of 2+ . The aluminum atom loses its three valence electrons to have the same electron arrangement as neon and a charge of 3+ . For representative elements under typical conditions, three electrons is usually the maximum number that will be los. Representative elements will not lose electrons beyond their valence because they would have to "break" the octet of the previous energy level which provides stability to the ion. Anions Anions are the negative ions formed from the gain of one or more electrons. When nonmetal atoms gain elections, they often do so until their outermost principal energy level achieves an octet. For fluorine, which has an electron arrangement of (2, 7), it only needs to gain one electron to have the same electron arrangement as neon. Forming an octet (eight electrons in the outer shell) provides stability to the atom. Fluorine will gain one electron and have a charge of 1− . The electron arrangement of the fluoride ion (2, 8) will also change to reflect the gain of an electron. Oxygen has an electron arrangement of (2, 6) and needs to gain two electrons to fill the n=2 energy level and achieve an octet of electrons in the outermost shell. The oxide ion will have a charge of 2− as a result of gaining two electrons. Under typical conditions, three electrons is the maximum that will be gained in the formation of anions. Subatomic Particles in an Ion Since ions form from the gain or loss of electrons, we can also look at the number of subatomic particles (protons, neutrons, and electrons) found in an ion. Remember that the number of protons determines the identity of the element and will not change in a chemical process. Example 2.5.1 How many protons, neutrons, and electrons in a single oxide (O2−) ion? Solution Oxygen has the atomic number 8 so both the atom and the ion will have 8 protons. The average atomic mass of oxygen is 16. Therefore, there will be 8 neutrons (atomic mass−atomic number=neutrons) . A neutral oxygen atom would have 8 electrons. However, the anion has gained two electrons so O2− has 10 electrons. We can also use information about the subatomic particles to determine the identity of an ion. Example 2.5.2 An ion with a 2+ charge has 18 electrons. Determine the identity of the ion. Solution If an ion has a 2+ charge then it must have lost electrons to form the cation. If the ion has 18 electrons and the atom lost 2 to form the ion, then the neutral atom contained 20 electrons. Since it was neutral, it must also have had 20 protons. Therefore the element is calcium. Polyatomic Ions A polyatomic ion is an ion composed of two or more atoms that have a charge as a group (poly = many). The ammonium ion (see figure below) consists of one nitrogen atom and four hydrogen atoms. Together, they comprise a single ion with a 1+ charge and a formula of NH+4 . The hydroxide ion (see figure below) contains one hydrogen atom and one oxygen atom with an overall charge of 1− . The carbonate ion (see figure below) consists of one carbon atom and three oxygen atoms and carries an overall charge of 2− . The formula of the carbonate ion is CO2−3 . The atoms of a polyatomic ion are tightly bonded together and so the entire ion behaves as a single unit. The figures below show several examples. Soult Screenshot 2-2-1.png Figure 2.5.1 : The ammonium ion (NH+4) is a nitrogen atom (blue) bonded to four hydrogen atoms (white). Soult Screenshot 2-2-2.png Figure 2.5.2 : The hydroxide ion (OH−) is an oxygen atom (red) bonded to a hydrogen atom. Soult Screenshot 2-2-3.png Figure 2.5.3 : The carbonate ion (CO2−3) is a carbon atom (black) bonded to three oxygen atoms. The table below lists a number of polyatomic ions by name and by structure. The heading for each column indicates the charge on the polyatomic ions in that group. Note that the vast majority of the ions listed are anions - there are very few polyatomic cations. 1− 2− 3− 1+ Table 2.5.1 : Common Polyatomic Ions acetate, CH3COO− carbonate, CO2−3 arsenate, AsO3−3 ammonium, NH+4 bromate, BrO−3 chromate, CrO2−4 phosphite, PO3−3 chlorate, ClO−3 dichromate, Cr2O2−7 phosphate, PO3−4 chlorite, ClO−2 hydrogen phosphate, HPO2−4 cyanide, CN− oxalate, C2O2−4 dihydrogen phosphate, H2PO−4 peroxide, O2−2 hydrogen carbonate, HCO−3 silicate, SiO2−3 hydrogen sulfate, HSO−4 sulfate, SO2−4 hydrogen sulfide, HS− sulfite, SO2−3 hydroxide, OH− hypochlorite, ClO− nitrate, NO−3 nitrite, NO−2 perchlorate, ClO−4 permanganate, MnO−4 The vast majority of polyatomic ions are anions, many of which end in -ate or -ite. Notice that in some cases such as nitrate (NO−3) and nitrite (NO−2) , there are multiple anions that consist of the same two elements. In these cases, the difference between the ions is the number of oxygen atoms present, while the overall charge is the same. As a class, these are called oxyanions. When there are two oxyanions for a particular element, the one with the greater number of oxygen atoms gets the -ate suffix, while the one with the fewer number of oxygen atoms gets the -ite suffix. The four oxyanions of chlorine are shown below, which also includes the use of the prefixes hypo- and per-. ClO− , hypochlorite ClO−2 , chlorite ClO−3 , chlorate ClO−4 , perchlorate Not your usual ion Soult Screenshot 2-2-4.png "Drink you milk. It's good for your bones." We're told this from early childhood, and with good reason. Milk contains a good supply of calcium, part of the structure of bone. However, there are two other ionic components of hydroxyapatite, the mineral component. Phosphate ion and hydroxide ion make up the remainder of the inorganic material in bone. News You Can Use Bone is a very complex structure. It is composed of protein (mainly collagen), hydroxyapatite (a calcium-phosphate-hydroxide mixture), some other minerals, and contains 10 - 20% water. The calcium/phosphate ratios are not stoichiometric, but vary somewhat from one portion of bone to the next. Bones are very strong but will break under enough stress. Regular exercise and proper nutrition help to increase bone strength. Watch a video about bone structure at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d9owEvYdouk Nitrate is an anion with a complex bonding structure. Major sources for this ion in drinking water are runoff from fertilizer, septic tank leakage, sewage, and natural deposits. High concentrations of nitrates represent a significant health hazard, especially to infants. The nitrate in the body is converted to nitrite, which then binds to hemoglobin. This binding decreases the ability of hemoglobin to transport oxygen, thus depriving the cells of the O2 needed for proper functioning. Cyanide production is widespread throughout nature. Forest fires will produce significant amounts of cyanide. Many plants contain cyanide, and it is produced by a number of bacteria, algae, and fungi. Cyanide is used industrially in metal finishing, iron and steel mills, and in organic synthesis processes. This material is also an important component for the refining of precious metals. Formation of a complex between cyanide and gold allows extraction of this metal from a mixture.

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