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Mitochondria
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Genomics classification, Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic genome; mitochondrial and chloroplast genome; DNA sequencing-principles and methods, Sanger Dideoxy and fluorescence method; coding and non-coding sequences and gene annotation; Tools for genome analysis-RFLP, DNA fingerprinting, RAPD, PCRCell cell theory plasma membrane eukaryotic cell nucleus organelle prokaryotic cell endosymbiont theory selective permeability phospholipid bilayer transport protein fluid mosaic model cytoplasm cytoskeleton microfilament microtubule nucleolus ribosome endoplasmic reticulum Golgi apparatus vacuole centriole lysosome chloroplast mitochondria cell wall cilia flagella passive transport diffusion dynamic equilibrium facilitated diffusion osmosis hypotonic solution hypertonic solution isotonic solution active transport endocytosis exocytosis SC.6.L.14.4-Life Science Review #3-nucleus; chloroplasts, mitochondria; cell wall, cytoplasm; cell wallCELLULAR RESPIRATION CELLULAR RESPIRATION What is it? Cellular respiration is the process by which cells break down glucose (a simple sugar) and other organic molecules to release energy in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate), which powers cell activities. Overall equation: C6H12O6 + 6O2 ⟶ 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP (energy) Stages of Cellular Respiration 1. Glycolysis (in the cytoplasm) • Where it happens: Cytoplasm (outside mitochondria) • What happens: o One molecule of glucose (6 carbons) is split into two molecules of pyruvate (3 carbons each). o 2 ATP are used to start the process. o 4 ATP are produced (net gain = 2 ATP). o 2 NADH (electron carriers) are also produced. Summary of glycolysis products per glucose: • 2 ATP (net gain) • 2 NADH • 2 Pyruvate 2. Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle) (in the mitochondrial matrix) • Where it happens: Mitochondrial matrix • What happens: o Each pyruvate (3C) is converted to acetyl-CoA (2C) before entering the cycle. o Acetyl-CoA combines with oxaloacetate (4C) to form citric acid (6C). o Through a series of enzyme-controlled reactions, citric acid is broken down, releasing CO₂, ATP, NADH, and FADH₂. Summary of Krebs Cycle products (per 2 pyruvates): • 2 ATP • 6 NADH • 2 FADH₂ • 4 CO₂ (exhaled as waste) 3. Electron Transport Chain (ETC) & Oxidative Phosphorylation (in the inner mitochondrial membrane) • Where it happens: Inner mitochondrial membrane (cristae) • What happens: o NADH and FADH₂ donate high-energy electrons to proteins in the ETC. o As electrons move through the chain, protons (H⁺) are pumped across the membrane, creating a proton gradient. o This gradient powers ATP synthase, which makes lots of ATP (like a turbine powered by flowing water). o Oxygen acts as the final electron acceptor, combining with electrons and hydrogen to form water (H₂O). Summary of ETC products: • About 34 ATP • H₂O Total Energy Yield from One Glucose (Aerobic Respiration) • Glycolysis → 2 ATP • Krebs Cycle → 2 ATP • ETC → ~34 ATP Total: ~38 ATP (usually 36 in eukaryotes due to energy costs) Anaerobic Respiration (When Oxygen is Absent) If oxygen is not available, cells switch to fermentation: • Alcoholic Fermentation (yeast & some bacteria): pyruvate → ethanol + CO₂ • Lactic Acid Fermentation (muscles & some bacteria): pyruvate → lactic acid These processes only make 2 ATP per glucose, much less efficient than aerobic respiration. Key Takeaway: Cellular respiration is like the cell’s power plant: glycolysis breaks glucose into smaller pieces, the Krebs cycle extracts more high-energy electrons, and the ETC uses those electrons to generate the bulk of ATP. Oxygen is essential for the final step, which is why we need to breathe to stay alive.أقسام الأسئلة المقترحة: 1️⃣ نقل المواد والعمليات الحيوية داخل الخلية الانتشار (Diffusion): تعريف الانتشار وطريقة انتقال المواد. هل يحتاج إلى طاقة؟ (الإجابة: لا). النقل النشط (Active Transport): كيف تنتقل المواد عكس تدرّج التركيز. هل يحتاج إلى طاقة؟ (الإجابة: نعم، يحتاج طاقة على شكل ATP). الخاصية الأسموزية (Osmosis): حركة جزيئات الماء عبر غشاء شبه منفذ من منطقة ذات تركيز ماء مرتفع إلى تركيز أقل. هل تحتاج إلى طاقة؟ (الإجابة: لا). 2️⃣ البناء الضوئي (Photosynthesis) العضو الذي تحدث فيه العملية: البلاستيدات الخضراء (Chloroplasts). المواد الداخلة: ثاني أكسيد الكربون + ماء + طاقة ضوئية. النواتج: أكسجين + جلوكوز. المعادلة المبسطة: 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + ضوء → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂. 3️⃣ التنفس الخلوي (Cellular Respiration) مكان الحدوث: الميتوكوندريا (Mitochondria). المواد الداخلة: جلوكوز + أكسجين. النواتج: طاقة (ATP) + ثاني أكسيد الكربون + ماء. المعادلة المبسطة: C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + طاقة (ATP). 🧩 أمثلة لأسئلة الاختيار من متعدد: الانتشار عملية (تحتاج/لا تحتاج) إلى طاقة؟ أ) تحتاج ب) لا تحتاج ✅ أي العمليات التالية تتم عبر غشاء شبه منفذ لحركة الماء فقط؟ أ) الانتشار ب) الخاصية الأسموزية ✅ ج) النقل النشط البناء الضوئي يحدث في: أ) الميتوكوندريا ب) البلاستيدات الخضراء ✅ ج) النواة ناتج عملية التنفس الخلوي الأساسي لتزويد الخلية بالطاقة هو: أ) ATP ✅ ب) الجلوكوز ج) الأكسجينSB1. Obtain, evaluate, and communicate information to analyze the nature of the relationships between structures and functions in living cells. a. Construct an explanation of how cell structures and organelles (including nucleus, cytoplasm, cell membrane, cell wall, chloroplasts, lysosome, Golgi, endoplasmic reticulum, vacuoles, ribosomes, and mitochondria) interact as a system to maintain homeostasisCreate a mcq questions based on the following learning objectives identify and state the functions of the following cell structures (including organelles) of typical plant and animal cells from diagrams, light micrographs and as seen under the light microscope using prepared slides and fresh material treated with an appropriate temporary staining technique, identify and state the functions of the following organelles from diagrams and electron micrographs: • mitochondria • ribosomes Basics of Molecular Biology, Introduction to DNA & RNA, Structural and Functional aspects of DNA, Structural and Functional aspects of RNA, Types and variants of RNAs (Coding & Noncoding), Central Dogma, Genes and Proteins, Prokaryotic & Eukaryotic CELL structures, Genome size - sequence complexity -Introns and Exons, Genome sequences and database subscriptions. Genome organization: Mitochondrial and Chloroplast genome.Genomic regulatory elements and their role: Promoters, Enhancers & CpG Islands; Genomic Repetitive Elements & their role: Long Repeats, Short Repeats, SSRs, Transposons / Transposable elements, Miniature Inverted Repeat TE, etc.; DNA Modifications: Variations and Base modifications, Polymorphisms: types of polymorphism Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs), mutations, other genetic variations, Introduction to Structural Variation and implications on genomes.