The height of a wave depends on what?

The distance over which the wind blows

Heat can be transferred through

radiation, conduction, and convection

Heat is always transferred from the

warmer object to the cooler object

cooler object to the warmer object

Waves, Oceans, Heat, and Tides

Waves, Tides, Oceans, and Sources of Heat

Continental Drift Theory. From the discussion of the rock cycle, it has been pointed out that through Earth's external and internal processes. Earth's surface is constantly changing. However, this idea of a changing environment did not conform with the belief of earlier scientists. Rather, they thought that the geographic positions of ocean basins and continents have been static since the beginning of time. It was around the 1500s when Leonardo da Vinci, upon his discovery of fossil seashells found at the high mountains of Italy, first thought of the idea that the areas where mountains are located may have been oceans in the past. Through time, other fossils of marine organisms found far above the current sea level further supported the idea that mountains were uplifted and weathering wore them down. At around the 1800s, most scientists have accepted the idea that Earth's crust is undergoing large vertical movements or uplifting. There was also evidence of possible horizontal movements, but the scientists then were not convinced about it. Alfred Wegener showed evidence of horizontal or lateral movement of the continents in his continental drift theory. According to him, the continents have drifted around the world and have once formed a giant landmass or supercontinent called Pangaea. To support his theory, Alfred Wegener presented a set of geographical, biological, and climatic evidence.Wegener's geographical evidence included the jigsaw puzzle fit of the current continents. He pointed out that the coastlines of South America and Africa seem to fit together. He also pointed the presence of mountain ranges having similar rock types and age but separated by vast oceans, like that of the folded rocks of the Caledonian mountains. The same folded rocks run through West Africa, North America, Newfoundland, Ireland, Wales, Scotland, Greenland, and Norway, all of which are now separated by the Atlantic Ocean. A geographical evidence on the similar rock types in West Africa, North America, Greenland, and Europe is found. The biological evidence came in the discovery of similar plant and animal fossils in different continents separated by oceans. The animal fossils of Mesosaurus and Lystrosaurus indicate that they were not capable of crossing the oceans to reach the other continents. If they were, the fossils should have been more widely distributed Africa, Australia, India, and South America were too large to be carried by wind. This indicates that the areas where the fossils were found were closely linked. It has also been found out that the plant only grew in areas with subpolar climate, which would indicate that the landmasses were located near the South Pole.Lastly, for his climatic evidence, Wegener discovered that a glacial period occurred during the late Paleozoic era in Southern Africa, South America, Australia, and India. The initial explanation for this event was global cooling, but it was rejected because large tropical swamps with so much vegetation were found at the same time in the Northern Hemisphere. This further supported the idea that the supercontinent was indeed near the South Pole, and the continents in Northern Hemisphere were once near the equator. The glacial period also left glacial striations, or the scratches glaciers make as they move across on the underlying bedrock, on the aforementioned continents. For such an event to happen, the continents would have to be connected. SCIENCE PIONEER. Alfred Wegener (1880-1930). Alfred Wegener was a German polar researcher, geophysicist, and meteorologist. He was known for his work on the continental drift theory. In his effort to defend his work, he went to the Greenland ice sheet where he died.Even with all the compelling evidence, the continental drift theory hardly convinced the scientific community at that time because Wegener was unable to identify a credible mechanism that drives the continental drift. He was unable to clearly explain how the continents moved and how the larger continents broke through the ocean floor. Eventually, critics of the continental drift began to accept the theory when new evidence supporting the theory was discovered. The new evidence led to a more encompassing theory the theory of plate tectonics. This theory provided a more convincing explanation as to how the continents moved. The evidence that paved the way for the theory of plate tectonics was the idea of wandering poles. Scientists began studying volcanic rocks to determine the location of the magnetic poles. When volcanic rocks crystallize, the minerals with magnetic properties align themselves parallel to Earth's magnetic field at the time the minerals were formed. This finding allowed scientists to determine the polarity of Earth's magnetic field and the magnetic inclination that showed the location of the poles. Upon studying the paleomagnetism of the rocks, geophysicists found out that rocks from various locations point to different magnetic north poles, suggesting that the poles have wandered. Since movement of magnetic poles is very unlikely, scientists have accepted the idea that the continents are indeed moving. And if the continents are moving, scientists thought that maybe the ocean basins are moving too. They also discovered that some rocks showed magnetic reversals, which led them to believe that the magnetic north pole now was not always the magnetic north pole. Seafloor Spreading. After World War II, exploration on the ocean floor became the focus of many geologic studies. It was only then that the ocean ridge system was discovered. A geologist in Princeton University named Harry Hess, along with other scientists, studied this ocean ridge system and hypothesized that the oceanic crust was moving away from the ridge. His hypothesis, known as seafloor spreading, showed that the ocean floor is split along the ridge where the magma rises to form the new ocean floor.Because of this, rocks located near the ridge are younger than those that are located magnetic polarity of Earth is also preserved in those rocks. Withe ridge scientists were able to see the magnetic reversals in the ocean floor, and they were able to make use of information to determine that the ocean floor is moving at a rate of about 10 cm per year. Plate Tectonics. Confirmation of the seafloor spreading hypothesis proved that continents are not moving above the ocean floor. Rather, it is the fragments of the lithosphere. The lithosphere is the rigid layer that is composed of the uppermost mantle and the crust that carry the continents and the ocean basins along. These fragments of the lithosphere are called plates. Underneath the lithosphere is a weaker region in the mantle known as asthenosphere that behaves like a fluid. Thus, the lithosphere floats above the asthenosphere, making it detached and free to move. This became the basis of the theory of plate tectonics. Now that it has been made clear that it is the plates which are moving, the question as to how they move remained. Sir Arthur Holmes proposed the driving force for this plate movement in 1919. He suggested that the movement in the mantle carries the plates along. It was previously discussed that Earth's interior is very hot due to the heat produced by radioactive decay. Convection takes place in the mantle, keeping the asthenosphere hot and weak. The convection currents produced in the asthenosphere are the ones carrying the lithospheric plates and making them move. However, convection currents are not enough. Mechanisms such as ridge push and slab pull aid the convection currents to slowly move the lithospheric plates. Ridge push occurs at mid ocean ridges which are higher in elevation than the surrounding trenches and abyssal plains. The new ocean floor from the ridge is hot and relatively thin. As it moves away from the ridge, it cools down and gets denser, heavier, and thicker. Below this cooling ocean floor is the asthenosphere, which is less dense. This area becomes a massive shear zone and the new ocean floor will effectively slide down the slope of the asthenosphere. When the plate collides with another plate with lesser density, the denser plate sinks and a subduction zone is formed. When the subducting plate sinks, it pulls on the rest of the plate behind it. These mechanisms explain the movement of the plates.Earth has seven major lithospheric plates that account for 94% of Earth's surface. These are the North American Plate, South American Plate, Pacific Plate, African Plate, Eurasian Plate, Indo-Australian Plate, and Antarctic Plate. These plates are constantly moving relative to the other plates. Thus, the interaction of plates occurs mostly along the boundaries. These movements are plotted using information from earthquakes and volcanic activities. There are three main types of plate boundaries: convergent, divergent, and transform boundaries Convergent boundaries are boundaries where two plates move towards each other A convergent boundary is also known as destructive margin since this is where the collision between two plates occhins. There are three types of convergence-oceanic oceanic, oceanic-continental, and continental-continental. Trenches are features of the ocean floor that are present in both oceanic-oceanic boundary and oceanic-continental boundary. Subduction occurs at the trenches, therefore, these are characterized as the deepest parts of Earth. A divergent boundary is the opposite of convergent boundary: two plates move away from each other. Divergent boundaries create new crust; thus, they are also known as constructive margins. The ocean ridge system is a divergent boundary where new ocean floor is produced as magma rises, pushing the older rocks aside.Transform boundary is also known as conservative plate margin since two plates just move past one another, neither creating nor destroying land. Earthquake epicenters are usually detected at transform boundaries because the rocks tend to break and not fold or sink, like in convergent boundaries. Evolution of the Ocean Basins. Both the movement of the plates and seafloor are responsible for the evolution of ocean basins. Along the divergent boundary where ocean ridge systems are found, magma is released and new ocean floor is created. Along convergent boundaries, the ocean floor is being destroyed. The evolution of the ocean basins started during the time when Pangaea was still present and was surrounded by the vast ocean or superocean known as Panthalassa, also called Paleo-Pacific or "old Pacific." Upon the initial break up of Pangaea into Laurasia and Gondwanaland, the Tethys Sea began to form. Then, the Eurasian and North about, forming the North Atlantic. The South Atlantic only started to form when the African Plate and South American Plate separated. The continued movement of the plates created the Himalayas at one side and separated the Pacific Ocean and Atlantic Ocean at the other side, which consequently formed the current ocean basins. Both the movement of the plates and seafloor are responsible for the evolution of ocean basins. Along the divergent boundary where ocean ridge systems are found, magma is released and new ocean floor is created. Along convergent boundaries, the ocean floor is being destroyed. The evolution of the ocean basins started during the time when Pangaea was still present and was surrounded by the vast ocean or superocean known as Panthalassa, also called Paleo-Pacific or "old Pacific." Upon the initial break up of Pangaea into Laurasia and Gondwanaland, the Tethys Sea began to form. Then, the Eurasian and North about, forming the North Atlantic. The South Atlantic only started to form when the African Plate and South American Plate separated. The continued movement of the plates created the Himalayas at one side and separated the Pacific Ocean and Atlantic Ocean at the other side, which consequently formed the current ocean basins.Continents do not immediately end at the point where the ocean meets the land. They may extend slightly into the oceans. The portion of the continent that is submerged is called continental margin. There are two types of continental margin: passive margin and active margin. A passive continental margin consists of a continental shelf, continental slope, and continental rise. It is not associated with plate boundaries; thus, there are very little tectonic activities. An active continental margin only has a continental shelf and a continental slope. It is associated with plate boundaries; thus, a main feature of this boundary is a trench. The different features of a continental margin are the following: 1. The continental shelf is the gently-sloping submerged portion of the continent. 2. The continental slope is the steep slope after the continental shelf. It is still part of the continent. 3. The continental rise is the gently-sloping area after the continental slope and before the ocean floor. 4. The trenches are the deepest parts of the ocean. These are narrow depressions caused by the subduction of the ocean floor along the convergent boundaries. 5. The mid-oceanic ridge is the mountain range system in the ocean. It is responsible for the production of new ocean floor. This is the region where new magma constantly emerges from. SCIENCE CAREER. A scientific illustrator uses art to inform and communicate complex details and concepts of science. He/She makes use of scientifically informed observations and research along with his/her technical art and aesthetic skills to make accurate representations. In Natural History, the scientific illustrators recreate how the extinct species look like by working with scientists and fossil records. Moreover, with the advances in technology, illustrators are now into 3D modelling, animation, and video making. Earth's History. All the processes that have been discussed require long periods of time to create a noticeable change on Earth's surface. You can just imagine how long it would take to create an oceanas vast as the Pacific Ocean if the ocean floor moves only at about 10 cm/year. It is then important to know the history of Earth to learn the complexities of its past and be able to use it to understand the present. Just like learning the history of a country that requires one to read a lot of books, learning the history of Earth involves studying a lot of rocks. Rocks, especially sedimentary rocks, contain a lot of information about Earth's past. It holds the key to most of the geologic processes that happened on Earth and the key to uncovering how life on Earth evolved. But these discoveries are worthless if there is no time perspective. Thus, one of the most important contributions of geologists to mankind is the geologic time scale, which holds a history that is exceedingly long.

Life in the Oceans: Moving Waves

Earth's Water Water Everywhere. Water fills oceans, lakes, and ponds. It flows in rivers, streams, and underground. It is even in the air. Some parts of Earth have snow and ice, which are frozen water. Water covers most of Earth's surface. Salt water in the oceans makes up much of Earth's water. Earth has much less fresh water. Many plants and animals need this fresh water to survive. Some of this fresh water is aboveground, while other fresh water is underneath Earth's surface. What are some ways you use Earth's water? Different Forms of Water. Liquid water is the most common state of Earth's water. It takes the shape of the container it is in. Liquid water is always moving even if you can't see it move. It flows in rivers and streams, and it crashes as ocean waves. Not all water is liquid. When liquid water gets very cold, it freezes to form ice. Ice is another state of water-solid water. Ice can float on liquid water. People form ice into different shapes. Artists even carve ice to make sculptures. Much of Earth's frozen water is at the North and South Poles, Earth's coldest areas. Some of Earth's water is in an invisible state as a gas called water vapor. While it's always invisible, water vapor is all around us. Changing Water. Earth's water is always changing from one state to another. When frozen water is heated, it melts and becomes liquid water. When liquid water is cooled, it freezes and becomes ice. Liquid water can become a gas, too. Have you ever seen a puddle of water dry up on a hot day? Energy from the Sun changed the liquid to a gas in a process called evaporation. Water evaporates from oceans, rivers, lakes, and puddles all over the world. When water vapor in the air cools down, it changes from a gas to a liquid. This process is called condensation. Clouds are made up of tiny drops of water formed by condensation. The tiny drops stick together, creating larger, heavier drops. Once they're large enough, they fall to the ground as rain or another type of precipitation. Water Is Important. Rain keeps plants alive and allows them to keep growing. People and other animals need water to survive. We also use it for other purposes, such as fighting fires. It is important to take care of Earth's water. Keeping waste and trash away from water keeps it from becoming dirty and unusable. Polluted water makes people, plants, and animals sick. Would you want to drink and play in polluted water?

Marine and Coastal Processes.What are the hazards that usually occur along marine and coastal areas? Coastal processes, such as waves, tides, sea level changes, crustal movement, and storm surges will result to coastal erosion, submersion, and saltwater intrusion. Coastal Erosion. Coastal erosion is the wearing down of the coastlines by the movement of wind and water. It is not a constant process; instead, the rate of erosion depends on other events such as cyclones. When cyclones occur along coastal areas, the winds and waves carry the sediment away from the shoreline. Shorelines play an important role to society. They are used in transportation, fishing, and tourism. Therefore, preventing coastal erosion is of utmost priority. There are three main classifications of stabilizing the shoreline: hard stabilization, soft stabilization, and retreat. 1. Hard stabilization is done by building structures that will slow down the erosion on areas that are prone to erosion. Examples of hard stabilization structures are jetties, sea walls, and breakwaters. Though they may slow down the erosion in one area, it may hasten the erosion in other areas. 2. Soft stabilization includes the process of beach nourishment, wherein sand from an offshore location is brought to an area with a receding shoreline. It does not make use of structures like the ones used in hard stabilization. 3. Retreat is the option taken by residents near areas where coastal erosion is already severe. At this point, the authorities no longer attempt to save the shoreline but rather limit the amount of human interference in the area. Submersion. Coastal erosion happens because of the interaction of the winds and waves on the shoreline. Submersion, on the other hand, happens because of the changes in the sea level, specifically, when it rises dangerously above the normal level. This is all due to the increase in the global temperature, which, in turn, melts the glacial deposits and increases the overall sea level. Another factor that may cause submersion is the vertical movement of the plates. Landmasses can be uplifted, which can also cause changes in the sea level. It can also be caused by tsunamis and storm surges. Submersion will most likely occur in reclaimed lands. These are the areas that were originally part of oceans, riverbeds, or lakebeds. They are low-lying flatlands, so even a small rise in sea level can cause great damage on the land. To prevent this from happening not only in reclaimed lands but also in coastal areas, a hard stabilization technique is used. Sea walls are built along the coastline to protect the land from being easily flooded. Aside from sea walls, dikes can also help prevent flooding. The government can also upgrade the infrastructures built in coastal areas, regenerate mangroves, or relocate the people. There are also other proposed strategies to mitigate coastal submersion, such as imposing of setback policies and construction regulations and creating adaptive plans for coastal management. Saltwater Intrusion. In coastal areas where there is an interaction between saltwater and fresh water, saltwater intrusion is one of the hazards that are evident in that area. Saltwater intrusion is the movement of saltwater into the freshwater aquifer. The natural flow is that the fresh water, which is less dense, moves towards the denser saltwater. But if the fresh water is being withdrawn faster than it is being replenished, then there will be a change in pressure and saltwater intrusion will occur.There are a few ways of preventing saltwater intrusion. One is to stop using the well where fresh water has been depleted and let the groundwater replenish naturally via the water cycle. The other method is to build two wells: a pumping well-built farther inland and an injection well-built closer to the coast. Using the injection well, fresh water is pumped into the aquifer to prevent the saltwater from intruding. The different marine and coastal hazards often occur in the Philippines, being an archipelago with the longest coastline. Manila Bay is one of the coastal areas of the Philippines that is facing various threats from both natural and anthropological causes. Saltwater intrusion occurs due to uncontrolled withdrawal of groundwater to be used by residential, commercial, and industrial areas built around the bay. It is also frequently flooded due to poor drainage systems and improper disposal of waste. Since Manila Bay is shared by four coastal provinces, four noncoastal provinces, and the National Capital Region, each local government unit and national agencies need to collaborate in planning, developing, and managing its marine and coastal resources. And it is not only Manila Bay but other parts as well, for as long as they are in coastal areas, hazards will mostly likely occur if not immediately addressed.

Ocean Waves

Write simple RCQ for A1 kids using: What’s that, Peter? This is my surfboard. I like to surf on waves in the ocean. Cool! Can you surf on a river or a pond? No, I can’t surf there. There aren’t many waves. Do you want to surf with me on the sea? No, I don’t. I like to look for seashells on the beach. How many can you find? I can find many seashells on the sand! They are very beautiful.

What’s that, Peter? This is my surfboard. I like to surf on waves in the ocean. Cool! Can you surf on a river or a pond? No, I can’t surf there. There aren’t many waves. Do you want to surf with me on the sea? No, I don’t. I like to look for seashells on the beach. How many can you find? I can find many seashells on the sand! They are very beautiful.

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