Commercial agriculture characterized by integration of different steps in the food-processing industry, usually through ownership by large corporations.

The domestication of plants and animals and the resulting start of a sedentary society (also called the Neolithic Agricultural Revolution).

The cultivation of animals, plants, fungi and other life forms for food, fiber, and other products used to sustain life.

Taming of animals for selling or using byproducts (the Fertile Crescent had cow, horses, pigs, and sheep, and therefore a comparative advantage over other early culture hearths).

Raising marine and freshwater fish in ponds and underwater cages.

A related influenced on patterns of settlement and land use that delineates property lines. Adopted in places where settlement could be regulated by law.

Farm that makes heavy use of machinery in the farm in process.

Agriculture undertaken primarily to generate products for sale off the farm.

The practice of rotating use of different fields from crop to crop each year, to avoid exhausting the soil.

An agricultural activity involving the raising of livestock, most commonly cows and goats, for dairy products such as milk, cheese, and butter.

Degradation of land, especially in semiarid areas, primarily because of human actions like excessive crop planting, animal grazing, and tree cutting.

Harvesting twice a year from the same field.

The 18th century privatization of common lands in England, which contributed to the increase in population and the rise of industrialization.

Using a large amount of land to farm food for the farmer's family to eat.

A severe shortage of food (as through crop failure) resulting in violent hunger and starvation and death.

Physical, social, and economic access at all times to safe and nutritious food sufficient to meet dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life.

Eighteenth-century English intellectual who warned that population growth threatened future generations because, in his view, population growth would always outstrip increases in agricultural production.

The Danish economist (1910-1999) who argued that rising populations will stimulate human societies to produce more food through innovation and technology.

Founder of the Green Revolution.

Foods that are mostly products or organisms that have their genes altered in a laboratory for specific purposes, such as disease resistance, increased productivity, or nutritional value allowing growers greater control, predictability, and efficiency.

The worldwide campaign to increase agricultural production from the 1940s to 60s, stimulated by new fertilizers and strains of wheat such as that by Norman Borlaug. The movement saved millions from starvation.

Prior to the invention of agriculture, how did most people obtain their food?

The growing of fruits, vegetables, and flowers.

A form of subsistence agriculture in which farmers must expend a relatively large amount of effort to produce the maximum feasible yield from a parcel of land.

Non-subsistence crops such as tea, cacao, coffee, and tobacco.

An agricultural system practiced in the Mediterranean style climates of Western Europe, California, and portions of Chile and Australia, in which diverse specialty crops such as grapes, avocados, olives, and a host of nuts, fruits, and vegetables comprise profitable agricultural operations.

The area surrounding a city from which milk is supplied.

Type of agriculture in which both animal and crops are farmed in the same area.

The use of crop rotation, natural fertilizers such as manure, and biological pest control, as opposed to artificial fertilizers,pesticides, hormones, antibiotics, additives, and genetically modified organisms, to promote healthy vigorous crops.

The Malay word for wet rice, commonly but incorrectly used to describe a sawah.

A form of subsistence agriculture based on herding domesticated animals.

Production system based on a large estate owned by an individual, family, or corporation and organized to produce a cash crop. Almost were established within the tropics; in recent decades, many have been divided into smaller holdings or reorganized as cooperatives

The process of genetically adapting a plant to better suit the needs of human beings. Used in First Agricultural Revolution.

A form of commercial agriculture in which livestock graze over an extensive area.

Cadastral system that imposed a rigid grid-like pattern on the land. Adopted by the U.S. Government & divides land into rectangular parcels.

A flooded field for growing rice.

The use of tropical forest clearings for crop production until their fertility is lost. Plots are then abandoned, and farmers move on to new sites

System of cultivation that usually exists in tropical areas where vegetation is cut close to the ground and then ignited. The fire introduces nutrients into the soil, thereby making it productive for a relatively short period of time.

Agriculture designed primarily to provide food for direct consumption by the farmer and the farmer's family.

Farming methods that preserve long-term productivity of land and minimize pollution, typically by rotating soil- restoring crops with cash crops and reducing in-puts of fertilizer and pesticides.

A patch of land cleared for planting through slashing and burning.

A rectangular land division scheme designed by Thomas Jefferson to disperse settlers evenly across farmlands of the US interior.

The seasonal migration of livestock between mountains and lowland pastures.

Commercial gardening and fruit farming, so named because truck was a Middle English word meaning bartering or the exchange of commodities.

Dietary energy consumption that is continuously below the minimum requirement for maintaining a healthy life and carrying out light physical activity.

Rice planted on dryland in a nursery, then moved to a deliberately flooded field to promote growth.

Dovetailing with and benefiting from the Industrial Revolution, witnessed improved methods of cultivation, harvesting, and storage of farm produce.

Started throughout the 1970s and the 1980s all over the world. Resulted in great increase of production. In some cases, it failed to increase production.

Agricultural theory based on location economics.

Situations following Von Thunen's model, for example the agricultural patterns of the United States whereas dairying is centered in the East, less-perishable crops in the Midwest and ranching in the West. Takes scale into consideration.

The global transfer of foods, plants, and animals during the colonization of the Americas.

Economic policy under which a nation accumulates wealth by exporting more goods than it imports

System that divided land into narrow parcels stretching back from rivers,roads, or canals. Mostly diffused by the French.

Based on the notion that distance usually requires some amount of effort, money, and/or energy to overcome. Because of this "friction," spatial interactions will tend to take place more often over shorter distances; quantity of interaction will decline with distance.

The transporting of goods in standard-sized shipping containers.

The change from an agricultural to an industrial society and from home manufacturing to factory production, especially the one that took place in England from about 1750 to about 1850.

The basic support systems needed to keep an economy going, including power, communications, transportation, water, sanitation, and education systems.

Model developed by Alfred Weber according to which the location of manufacturing establishments is determined by the minimization of three critical expenses: labor, transportation, and agglomeration.

A logical attempt to explain the locational pattern of an economic activity and the manner in which its producing areas are interrelated.

Industries that manufacture goods made from the raw materias provided by the primary sector

Losses in one area may be offset by savings in another (e.g., higher labor costs could be offset by lower taxes).

Costs that change directly with the amount of production (e.g. energy supply and labor costs).

Refers to the transfer of transported cargo from one kind of carrier to another. (ex: boat to train)

The ability of an individual, firm, or country to produce a good or service at a lower opportunity cost than other producers.

Industries designed to stimulate growth through the establishment of various supporting industries.

A foreign owned factory in Mexico that produces goods and ships them to the United States for consumption or assembly.

A trade agreement between Canada, the United States and Mexico that encourages free trade between these North American countries.

Western and Central Europe, Eastern North America, Russia and Ukraine, and Eastern Asia, each of which consists of one or more core areas of industrial development with subsidiary clusters

Lies south of the world's primary industrial region. Industrial centers are not as large but their economies are still growing such as Mexico, India, and the BRICS.

Specific area within a country in which tax incentives and less stringent environmental regulations are implemented to attract foreign business and investment.

Brazil, Russia, India, China, & South Africa

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A model that describes how economic, political, and/or cultural power is spatially distributed between dominant core regions, and more marginal or dependent semi-peripheral and peripheral regions.

In terms of the core-periphery model, the centers of economic, political, and/or cultural power within a given territorial entity.

A structuralist theory that offers a critique of the modernization model of development. Based on the idea that certain types of political and economic relations (especially colonialism) between countries and regions of the world have created arrangements that both control and limit the extent to which regions can develop.

In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, the economic process that led to industrialization, urbanization, the rise of a large and prosperous middle class, and heavy investment in education.

A modern, industrialized country in which people are generally better educated and healthier and live longer than people in developing countries do.

Country that has low to moderate industrialization and low to moderate per capita GNP. Most are located in Africa, Asia, and Latin America.

The total value of goods and services, including income received from abroad, produced by the residents of a country within a specific time period, usually one year.

The total value of goods and services produced within the borders of a country during a specific time period, usually one year.

Indicator of level of development for each country, constructed by United Nations, combining income, literacy, education, and life expectancy.

A general term for economic development models which assume that (1) all countries are capable of developing economically in the same way and (2) economic disparities between countries and regions are the result of short-term inefficiencies in local or regional market forces.

A model of economic development most closely associated with the work of economist Walter Rostow. The modernization model (sometimes referred to as modernization theory) maintains that all countries go through five interrelated stages of development, which culminate in an economic state of self-sustained economic growth and high levels of mass consumption.

A process of acculturation or cultural imperialism through which forms of industrial, political and economic organization are often imposed on other cultures under the guise of getting aid in the form of technological and industrial "progress," but it can still lead to good things, like bringing needed infrastructure

The least powerful regions and therefore are often marginalized or under the control of both semi-peripheral regions and core regions.

The intermedency regions in terms of the hierarchy of power between core regions and peripheral regions.

Veiws disparities as features in the global economy which are not easily changed. People who believe this model think that poorer countries will have a difficult time improving their situation due to the structured global economy's concentration of wealth and unequal relations in some places.

Wallersteins theory of the core, semi periphery, periphery, and external areas. The core benefited the most from the development of a capitalist world economy. Semi perihpery was the buffer between the core and periphery. Periphery are states that lack strong central gov'ts or are controlled by other states. External areas are states that mainteained their own economic system and for the mosr part, remianed outside of the capitalist world economy

The trend toward increased cultural and economic connectedness between people, businesses, and organizations throughout the world.

Principles for mass production based on assembly-line techniques, scientific management, mass consumption based on higher wages, and sophisticated advertising techniques.

Investment in the economies of LDCs by transnational corporations based in MDCs. However, all countries are not recipients of this investment. Brazil, China and Mexico were the LDCs that received most of the investment.

Areas along or near major transportation arteries that are devoted to the research, development, and sale of high-technology products. These areas develop because of the networking and synergistic advantages of concentrating high-technology enterprises in close proximity to one another

A feature of economic development in peripheral countries whereby the host country establishes area with favorable tax, regulatory, and trade arrangements in order to attract foreign operations.

Putting the Fordist idea on an international scale. When transnational corporations have divided labor intensive work to LDC's and more skilled labor remains in the MDC's.

Centers or nodes of high-technology research and activity around which a high-technology corridor is sometimes established.

Through processes such as globalization, time is accelerated and the significance of space is reduced

The idea that distance between some places is actually shrinking as technology enables more rapid communication and increased interaction between those places.

Industries that sell their products or services primarily to consumers outside the settlement.

Services that primarily meet the needs of other businesses, including professional, financial and transportation services.

A market center for the exchange of services by people attracted from the surrounding area.

A theory formulated b Walter Christaller in the early 1900's that explains the size and distribution of cities in terms of a competitive supply of goods and services to dispersed populations.

Businesses that provide services primarily to individual consumers, including retail services and personal services.

The manufacturing and service activities performed by the basic sector of a city's labor force; functions of a city performed to satisfy demands external to the city itself and, in that performance, earning income to support the urban population.

The area surrounding a central place from which people are attracted to use the place's goods and services.

industries that sell their products or services primarily to consumers in the community.

Services offered by the government to provide security and protection for citizens and businesses.

The maximum distance people are willing to travel to use a service.

In central place theory, the size of the population required to make provision of services economically feasible.

The percentage of women holding full-time jobs outside the home. Women to Men % (World-77, Developed-75, Developing-65).

Technique for extracting oil or natural gas from underground rock by the high-power injection of a mixture of water, sand, and chemicals.

The United Nations index, introduced in 2010, which measures a country's loss of achievement due to gender inequality, based on reproductive health, employment, and general empowerment.

Calculates the monetary worth of what is produced within a country plus income received from investments outside the country, as a more accurate way of measuring a country's wealth in the context of a global economy.

The most recent speculative bubble over housing prices. Many Americans bought houses they couldn't afford using lax credit and adjustable rate mortgages. End of technology boom-bust, investors moved $ to real estate, created another bubble (2002-2007). The result was a steep drop in prices when mass foreclosures came about. It sent America into the recent "Great Recession."

A modified version of the Human Development Index that accounts for inequality.

The percentage of a country's people who can read and write.

The annual number of deaths of women from pregnancy-related causes per 100,000 live births.

The practice of offering small, collateral-free loans to individuals who otherwise would not have access to the capital necessary to begin small businesses or other income-generating activities.

Eight development goals adopted by the Millennium Declaration of 2000, consisting of 18 targets to be achieved by the year 2015. It includes 1) eradicating extreme poverty and hunger, 2) achieving universal primary education, 3) reducing child mortality, 4) and promoting gender equality.

A monetary measure of development that takes into account what money buys in different countries.

Economic policies imposed on less developed countries by international agencies to create conditions encouraging international trade, such as raising taxes, reducing government spending, controlling inflation, selling publicly owned utilities to private corporations, and charging citizens more for services.

The increasing gap in economic conditions between core and peripheral regions as a result of the globalization of the economy.

The gross value of a product minus the costs of raw materials and energy.

The portion of the economy concerned with the direct extraction of materials from Earth's surface, generally through agriculture, although sometimes by mining, fishing, and forestry.

The portion of the economy concerned with manufacturing useful products through processing, transforming, and assembling raw materials.

The portion of the economy concerned with transportation, communications, and utilities, sometimes extended to the provision of all goods and services to people in exchange for payment.

International body representing 149 nations that negotiates the rules for global commerce and is dedicated to the promotion of free trade.

Industries whose products weigh more after assembly than they did previously in their constituent parts. Such industries tend to have production facilities close to their markets.

Industries whose final products weigh less than their constituent parts, and whose processing facilities tend to be close to sources of raw materials.

Manufacturing based in homes rather than in a factory, commonly found before the Industrial Revolution.

Method of inventory management made possible by efficient transportation and communication systems, whereby companies keep on hand just what they need for near-term production, planning that what they need for longer-term production will arrive when needed.

An industry for which labor costs comprise a high percentage of total expenses.

A business strategy that involves reducing costs by using suppliers of products and services in countries where labor is cheaper and government regulation may be less strict.

The period characterized by the transition from mass industrial production to more flexible forms of production favoring innovation and aimed at meeting market demands for customized products.

A U.S. law that prevents a union and a company from negotiating a contract that requires workers to join the union as a condition of employment.

Location factors related to the costs of factors of production inside the plant, such as land, labor, and capital.

Location factors related to the transportation of materials into and from a factory.

A fabric made by weaving, used in making clothing.

Practice where a single entity controls the entire process of a product, from the raw materials to distribution.

An "upper city"; a common feature of ancient Greek cities; an elevated site for religious observances

In ancient Greece, public spaces where citizens debated, lectured, judged each other, planned military campaigns, socialized, and traded.

A society in which everyone has about equal rank, access to, and power over the basic resources that support survival, influence, and prestige.

People grouped according to economic or social class; characterized by the unequal distribution of wealth, power, and prestige.

Cities that arose during the Middle Ages and that actually represent a time of relative stagnation in urban growth. This system fostered a dependent relationship between wealthy landowners and peasants who worked their land, providing very little alternative economic opportunities.

City that keeps their traditions, and not modified by outside forces. (defensive)

A city overrun with factories, supply facilities, the expansion of transport systems, and the construction of tenements for a growing labor force.

A city in which a central square became the focus of the city flanked by royal, religious, public, and private buildings: streets leading to such squares formed the beginnings of a downtown

A city in which the dominant aspect was the imposing complex of religious governmental structures

A country's largest city-ranking atop the urban hierarchy-most expressive of the national culture and usually (but not always) the capital as well.

Fourth stage of city societies, a city that contains urban elements and industrial factories, the rise of capitalism, (Skyscrapers, more money ).

The period between about 7000 and 5000 bc which noted the beginnings of the development of states and urbanization

A network of ancient cities where rulers were deemed to have divine authority and were in effect god-kings.

A crescent shaped zone of early urbanization extending across Eurasia from England in the west to Japan in the east.

A group of decision makers and organizers who controlled the resources, and sometimes the lives of others.

Those products or services of an urban economy that are exported outside the city itself, earning income for the community.

Those economic activities of a city that supply the resident population with goods and services and that have no "export" implications.

A process by which real estate agents convince white property owners to sell their houses at low prices because of fear that black families will soon move into the neighborhood.

The downtown or nucleus of a city where retail stores, offices, and cultural activities are concentrated; building densities are usually quite high; and transportation systems converge.

The strength of an urban center in its capacity to attract produce and consumers to its facilities; a city's "reach" into the surrounding region

A theory that explains the distribution of services, based on the fact that settlements serve as centers of market areas for services; larger settlements are fewer and farther apart than smaller settlements and provide services for a larger number of people who are willing to travel farther.

A term introduced by American journalist Joel Garreau in order to describe the shifting focus of urbanization in the United States away from the Central Business District toward new loci of economic activity at the urban fringe. These cities are characterized by extensive amounts of office and retail space, few residential areas and modern buildings. Located close to major highways.

Some cities are characterized by one specific activity (e.g., Orlando - tourism, Las Vegas - gambling, ...); cities tend to lose their functional specialization as they grow. Typically specialize in management, research and development of a specific industry (motor vehicles in Detroit) or are centers of government and education, notably state capitals that also have a major university (Albany, Lansing, Madison, or Raleigh-Durham).

Restricted neighborhoods or subdivisions, often literally fenced in, where entry is limited to residents and their guests. Although predominantly high-income based, in North America they are increasingly a middle-class phenomenon.

Literally, "country behind," a term that applies to a surrounding area served by an urban center.

An extensive concentration of urbanized settlement formed by a coalescence of several metropolitan areas. The term is commonly applied to the urbanized northeastern seaboard of the U.S. extending from Boston, MA to Washington, D.C.

Real estate agents advising customers to purchase homes in neighborhoods depending on their race.

In a model urban hierarchy, the idea that the population of a city or town will be inversely proportional to its rank in the hierarchy.

A discriminatory real estate practice in North America in which members of minority groups are prevented from obtaining money to purchase homes or property in predominantly white neighborhoods. The practice derived its name from the red lines depicted on cadastral maps used by real estate agents and developers.

The physical character of a place

The location of a place relative to other places.

A subsidiary urban area surrounding and connected to the central city. Many are exclusively residential; others have their own commercial centers or shopping malls.

The southern and southwestern states, from the Carolinas to California, characterized by warm climate and recently, rapid population growth.

A ranking of settlements (hamlet, village, town, city, metropolis) according to their size and economic functions.

A process involving the clustering or concentrating of people or activities. The term often refers to manufacturing plants and businesses that benefit from close proximity because they share skilled-labor pools and technological and financial amenities.

Dividing an area into zones or sections reserved for different purposes such as residence and business and manufacturing

A relatively stable slum area that radiates from the central market to the outermost zone of peripheral squatter settlements. Consists of high-density shantytowns

Occurs when the market becomes saturated with a particular industry, creating too much competition and forcing some businesses to shut down.

The trend of middle- and upper-income Americans moving into city centers and rehabilitating much of the architecture but also replacing low-income populations, and changing the social character of certain neighborhoods.

A ring of land maintained as parks, agriculture, or other types of open space to limit the sprawl of an urban area.

Unrestricted growth in many American urban areas of housing, commercial development, and roads over large expanses of land, with little concern for urban planning.

Economic activity that is neither taxed nor monitored by a government; and is not included in that government's Gross National Product.

The hallmark of the socialist city whereby a city had a large, dominant square at the center and the outsides were flanked by large aparment buildings.

Money migrant send back to family and friends in their home coutnries, often in cash, forming an important part of the economy in many poorer coutnries

Centers of economic, culture, and political activity that are strongly interconnected and together control the global systems of finance and commerce.

Legally adding land area to a city in the United States.

An area deliniated by the us beureau of the census for which statisitcs are published; in urbanized areas, census tracts correspond roughly to neighborhoods.

In the United States, two or more contiguous core based statistical areas tied together by commuting patterns.

Model created by EW Burgess in 1923, which explains that a city grows outward from a central area in a series of concentric rings, like the growth rings on a tree.

In the United States, the combination of all metropolitan statistical areas and Micropolitan statistical areas.

A cooperative agency consisting of representatives of local governments in a metropolitan area in the United States.

The change in density in an urban area from the center to the periphery.

A process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner to abandonment.

Urban neighborhoods and rural towns without ready access to fresh, healthy, and affordable food. Instead of supermarkets and grocery stores, these communities may have no food access or are served only by fast food restaurants and convenience stores that offer few healthy, affordable food options.

In the United States, a central cut of at least 50,000 population, the county within which the city is located, and adjacent counted meeting one of several tests indicating a functional connection to the central city.

An urbanized area of between 10,000 and 50,000 inhabitants, the county in which it is found, and adjacent counties tied to the city.

Created by Chauncy Harris and Edward Ullman in the 1940s, it's a model that suggests that the CBD is losing its dominant position. A model of the internal structure of cities in which social groups are arranged around a collection of nodes of activities. There are nine different zones: 1. CBD 2. Wholesale, Light Manufacturing 3. Low-Class Residential 4. Medium-Class Residential 5. High-Class Residential 6. Heavy Manufacturing 7. Outlying BD 8. Residential Suburb 9. Industrial Suburb.

A model of North American urban areas, created by Chauncey Harris, consisting of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential and business areas tied together by a beltway or ring road. There are eight different zones: 1. Central City 2. Suburban Residential 3. Shopping Mall 4. Industrial District 5. Office Park 6. Service Center 7. Airport Complex 7. Combined Employment & Shopping Center.

In the United States, all of the combined statistical areas plus all of the remaining metropolitan statistical areas and micropolitan statistical areas.

Housing owned by the government; in the United States, it is rented to low-income residents, and the rents are set at 30 percent of the families' incomes.

The four consecutive 15 minute periods in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic.

The model of urban land use developed by Hoyt that shows urban growth in pie-shaped wedges, or sectors, based on transportation improvements

A set of principles for community planning that focuses on strategies to encourage the development of sustainable, healthy communities.

Statistical analysis used to identify where people of similar living standards, ethnic background, and life style live within an urban area.

An area within a city in a less developed country in which people illegally establish residences on land they do not own. Ex: Shantytown

Outlined by a group of architects, urban planners, and developers from over 20 countries, an urban design that calls for development, urban revitalization, and suburban reforms that create walkable neighborhoods with a diversity of housing and jobs.

A group in society prevented from participating in the material benefits of a more developed society because of a variety of social and economic characteristics.

A dense core of census tracts, densely settled suburbs, and low-density land that links the dense suburbs with the core

In the United States, a central city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs.

Developed by geographers Ernst Griffin and Larry Ford, a model of the Latin American city showing a blend of traditional elements of Latin American culture with the forces of globalization that are reshaping the urban scene.

Model developed by James Vance postulation that a simplified description of urban land use, especially descriptive of the modern North American city. it features a number of dispersed, peripheral centers of dynamic commercial and industrial activity linked by sophisticated urban transportation networks.

Analyzed how each period in the history of American urbanization revolves around a form of transportation and how transportation affects growth rates in American cities.

A model that holds that the potential use of a service at a particular location is directly related to the number of people in a location and inversely related to the distance people must travel to reach the service.

Tendency of wealthy and middle-class whites to migrate to suburban areas outside of cities in order to escape the poverty, pollution, and crime of minority-dominant inner-city areas.