the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

a neuron's bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body

the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands

a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

a period of inactivity after a neuron has fired

level of stimulation required to trigger an impulse, the combined signals trigger an action potential

a neuron's reaction of either firing or not firing

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron

chemical messages that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released they travel across synapse and bind to receptor sites on receiving neuron, influencing whether the neuron will send an impulse

a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron

"morphine within" - natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to please

a molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, stimulates a response

a molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, inhibits or blocks a response

the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous system

The brain and spinal cord

the sensory and motor neutrons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body

bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the CNS with muscles, glands, and sense organs

neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cold to the muscles and glands

neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muslces

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response. The spinal cords work.

a body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands travel through the bloodstream and affect other tissues

a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones that help *arouse the body in times of stress*

the endocrine system's most influential gland; under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates *growth* and controls other endocrine glands

tissue destraction; is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue

an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brains surface

a series of x-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice of the brain's structure

a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task

a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated image of soft tissue, brain anatomy

a technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. Shows brain function and structure. Where brain is especially active, blood goes.

the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull, the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions

the base of the brainstem; controls heart beat and breathing

the brain's sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

a nerve network that travels through the brainstem and thalamus and plays an important role in controlling arousal

the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory

neural system located below the cerebral hemisphere; associated with emotions and drives

two lima-bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked with emotion, especially aggression and fear

a neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities, helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward

the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemisphere; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they may also play a role in learning and thinking

portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscles movements and in making plans and judgements

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and towards the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields

portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the authority areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear

an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements

area of the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking. Areas found in all 4 lobes, electrically probing the areas won't produce observable response

the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience

the formation of new neurons

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them.

a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers connecting them.

our awareness of ourselves and our environment

the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks.

every external influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things arounds us

the biochemical unites of heredity that make up the chromosomes; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing proteins

develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms. Same genes, but don't always have same number of copies of those genes. If they don't share a placenta, one may have more nourishment- differences in twins

twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs. Genetically no closer than brothers or sisters, but share a fetal environment

the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes

the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change

study of evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selction

the traits contributing to reproduction and survival will be passed on to succeeding generations.

a random error in gene replcation that leads to a change

English natural scientist who formulated a theory of evolution by natural selection

enables muscle action, learning, and memory

influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion

Affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal

helps control alertness and arousal

A major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory

a major inhibitory neurotransmitter

natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure

an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting.

in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing.

Freud's theory of personality and therapeutic technique that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts. Freud believed the patient's free associations, resistances, dreams, and transferences—and the therapist's interpretations of them—released previously repressed feelings, allowing the patient to gain self-insight.

according to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. According to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware.

the largely conscious, "executive" part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality. The ego operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain.

contains a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. The id operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification.

the childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) during which, according to Freud, the id's pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones.

the part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations.

according to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage in which conflicts were unresolved.

the process by which, according to Freud, children incorporate their parents' values into their developing superegos after realizing they cannot be with their opposite sex parent.

according to Freud, a boy's sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father.

in psychoanalytic theory, the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality.

psychoanalytic defense mechanism that shifts sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person, as when redirecting anger toward a safer outlet.

psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which people disguise their own threatening impulses by attributing them to others

defense mechanism that offers self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening, unconscious reasons for one's actions.

psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which the ego unconsciously switches unacceptable impulses into their opposites. Thus, people may express feelings that are the opposite of their anxiety-arousing unconscious feelings.

psychoanalytic defense mechanism in which an individual faced with anxiety retreats to a more infantile psychosexual stage, where some psychic energy remains fixated.

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness.

Carl Jung's concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species' history.

a personality test, such as the Rorschach or TAT, that provides ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projection of one's inner dynamics.

the most widely used projective test, a set of 10 inkblots, designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks to identify people's inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots.

a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes.

according to Maslow, the ultimate psychological need that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one's potential.

(1) a sense of one's identity and personal worth. (2) all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"

according to Rogers, an attitude of total acceptance toward another person.

a characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act, as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports.

a questionnaire (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess selected personality traits.

the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most appropriate use), this test is now used for many other screening purposes.

a test (such as the MMPI) developed by testing a pool of items and then selecting those that discriminate between groups (find a relationship)

the interacting influences between personality and environmental factors.

views behavior as influenced by the interaction between persons (and their thinking) and their social context.

one's feelings of high or low self-worth.

overestimating others' noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders (as if we presume a spotlight shines on us).

a readiness to perceive oneself favorably

Psychosexual stage (0-18m) Pleasure centers on the mouth - sucking, biting, chewing

Psychosexual stage (18-36m) Pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder elimination; coping with demands for control

Psychosexual stage (3-6y) Pleasure zone is the genitals; soping with incestuous sexual feelings; Oedipus complex

Psychosexual stage (6-puberty) Dormant sexual feelings

Psychosexual stage (puberty on) Maturation of sexual interests

Theorist who believed in the collective unconscious and archetypes (universal themes)

ideas and images of the accumulated experience of all human beings

Theorist who developed the inferiority complex, overcoming childhood feelings of inferiority

Social-cognitive theorist who believed personality comes from observing others and modeling ourselves after them.

Austrian neurologist who originated psychoanalysis (1856-1939); Said that human behavior is irrational; behavior is the outcome of conflict between the id (irrational unconscious driven by sexual, aggressive, and pleasure-seeking desires) and ego (rationalizing conscious, what one can do) and superego (ingrained moral values, what one should do).

The motive to obtain pleasure and avoid tension or discomfort; the most fundamental human motive and the guiding principle of the id.

According to Freud, the principle on which the ego operates, which seeks to delay gratification of the id's urges until appropriate outlets and situations can be found.

our view of our ability to succeed, control over our success

Neo-Freudian who believed self-concept and unconditional positive regard drive personality

Neo-freudian who is associated with basic anxiety; hypothesized it stemmed from childhood experiences and parenting.

Giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identities.

Giving priority to the goals of one's group (family, work) and defining one's identity accordingly.

reduced our trait variations to 2 dimensions (extraversion-introversions, emotional stability -instability);

a personality test that taps four characteristics and classifies people into 1 of 16 personality types

openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism

A personality dimension that describes someone who is responsible, dependable, persistent, and organized

characteristics such as imagination and insight, and those high in this trait also tend to have a broad range of interests

degree of emotional instability or stability

a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior.

a complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned.

internal motivational state created by a physiological need

the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need.

a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level.

a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior.

the principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases.

Maslow's pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active.

meaning, purpose, and communion beyond the self

the process by which people achieve their full potential

needs at the fourth level of Maslow's hierarchy: liking and respecting yourself, feeling important and useful

understanding and acceptance of others in giving and receiving love

A person's needs for security and protection from physical and emotional harm

the most basic human needs to be satisfied- water, food, shelter, and clothing

a desire for significant accomplishment: for mastery of things, people, or ideas; for attaining a high standard

the form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues. When its level is low, we feel hunger.

the point at which an individual's "weight thermostat" is supposedly set. When the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight.

The part of the hypothalamus that produces hunger signals

The part of the hypothalamus that produces feelings of fullness as opposed to hunger, and causes one to stop eating.

hormone that signals the hypothalamus and brain stem to reduce appetite and increase the amount of energy used

A hunger-arousing hormone secreted by an empty stomach

secreted by the hypothalamus; triggers hunger

digestive hormone that suppresses appetite

the body's resting rate of energy expenditure.

regarded by some as the father of the scientific study of human sexuality. Published a series of reports which described common sexual behaviors in the US

the four stages of sexual responding described by Masters and Johnson—excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution.

(2) a resting period after orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve another.

a problem that consistently impairs sexual arousal or functioning.

a sexual disorder in which the person's preferred method of sexual arousal and fulfillment is through sexual behavior that is unusual or socially unacceptable

sex hormones, such as estradiol, secreted in greater amounts by females than by males and contributing to female sex characteristics.

the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty.

a response of the whole organism, involving (1) physiological arousal, (2) expressive behaviors, and (3) conscious experience.

the theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli.

the theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experience of emotion.

the Schachter-Singer theory that to experience emotion one must (1) be physically aroused and (2) cognitively label the arousal.

arousal response to one event spills over into our response to the next event

Emotions happen before interpretation of situation

"High Road" and "Low Road"

Cognitive appraisal sometimes without our awareness defines emotion

a machine, commonly used in attempts to detect lies, that measures several of the physiological responses (such as perspiration and cardiovascular and breathing changes) accompanying emotion.

anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, surprise

cultural rules specifying what emotions should and should not be expressed under what circumstances

Interested in the universality of facial expressions: facial expressions carry same meaning regardless of culture, context, or language.

the tendency of facial muscle states to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear, anger, or happiness.

a subfield of psychology that provides psychology's contribution to behavioral medicine.

the process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging.

the events of our lives flow through a psychological filter. How we appraise an event influences how much stress we experience and how effectively we respond.

Selye's concept of the body's adaptive response to stress in three phases—alarm, resistance, exhaustion.

first phase of the GAS, during which body resources are mobilized to cope with the stressor

Second phase of the GAS, during which the body adapts to and maintains resources to cope with the stressor.

third phase of the GAS, during which the body's resources become depleted

an event or situation that causes stress

under stress, people (especially women) often provide support to others (tend) and bond with and seek support from others (befriend).

literally, "mind-body" illness; any stress-related physical illness, such as hypertension and some headaches.

the study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes together affect the immune system and resulting health.

the two types of white blood cells that are part of the body's immune system:

form in the bone marrow and release antibodies that fight bacterial infections

form in the thymus and other lymphatic tissue and attack cancer cells, viruses, and foreign substances

the clogging of the vessels that nourish the heart muscle; the leading cause of death in many developed countries.

Friedman and Rosenman's term for competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-prone people.

Friedman and Rosenman's term for easygoing, relaxed people.

actions that people can take to master, tolerate, reduce, or minimize the effects of stressors

a type of coping in which people try to prevent having an emotional response to a stressor

Attempting to alleviate stress directly by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor.

Aimed at changing one's interpretation of stressful events

a choice must be made between two attractive goals

conflict occurring when a person must choose between two undesirable goals

conflict occurring when a person must choose or not choose a goal that has both positive and negative aspects

A conflict in which one must choose between options that have both many attractive and many negative aspects.

mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations

a method for assessing an individual's mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores

A factor that underlies specific mental aptitudes and is therefore measured by every task on an individual test

a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing

Autism spectrum disorder

linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, intrapersonal, interpersonal, naturalist

Traditional tests, book smarts

Measures creative problem solving, adaptability

Everyday tasks, management skills

the know-how involved in comprehending social situations and managing oneself successfully

the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions for adaptive or creative thinking

Yes, frontal and parietal lobes

Smart people use less energy to solve problems

Reaction time, sensory muscle, body proportions

The level your mind is at compared to average for an age

mental age/chronological age x 100

Intellectual/ mental ability, IQ of <70 and difficulty in adapting to the demands of life (mental retardation)

Measure of intelligence based on a scale of 100 being average or an level for your age

measures how much a person has learned in a given subject or area (Ap exam)

estimates the probability that a person will be successful in learning a specific new skill (PSAT AND SAT)

the most widely used intelligence test; contains verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtests

Standardized,reliable and valid

The uniform procedures used in the administration and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretest group

Bell shaped curve, most scores fall near the average, and fewer scores lie near the extremes

Overtime, our intelligence is increasing each generation

(Consistency) Scores shouldn't change much between 1st and 2nd test scores correlate, retesting should reproduce similar scores

(Relevance) the test measures what it's supposed to measure

The extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest; ex: psychology tests test over psychology, not spanish

The success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it is assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior. Examples: PSAT

Older adults= less correct answers over time

Intelligence Increase in age over time

our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age

our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood

Limited mental ability, IQ of 70 or lower

An example of mental disability

The proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied.

a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span.

the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo.

the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month.

the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth.

(literally, "monster makers") agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm.

physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking. In severe cases, signs include a small, out-of-proportion head and abnormal facial features.

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience.

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information.

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas.

in developmental psychology, adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information.

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities.

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived.

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to about 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic.

the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects.

in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view.

people's ideas about their own and others' mental states—about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict.

a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by significant deficiencies in communication and social interaction, and by rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors.

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events.

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts.

the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age.

an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation.

an optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces normal development.

the process by which certain animals form strong attachments during an early life critical period.

a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity.

according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers.

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"

the socially constructed roles and characteristics by which a culture defines male and female.

a set of expected behaviors for males or for females.

our sense of being male or female.

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished.

the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role.

an umbrella term describing people whose gender identity or expression differs from that associated with their birth sex.

the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence.

our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles.

the "we" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "Who am I?" that comes from our group memberships.

in Erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood.

for some people in modern cultures, a period from the late teens to mid-twenties, bridging the gap between adolescent dependence and full independence and responsible adulthood.

the sex chromosome found in both men and women. Females have two X chromosomes; males have one. An X chromosome from each parent produces a female child.

the sex chromosome found only in males. When paired with an X chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child.

the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty.

the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing.

the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible.

nonreproductive sexual traits, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair.

the first menstrual period.

an enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one's own sex (homosexual orientation), the other sex (heterosexual orientation), or both sexes

the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines.

a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another.

research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period.

the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement.

Known for his theory of cognitive development in children

developmental psychology; compared effects of maternal separation, devised patterns of attachment; "The Strange Situation": observation of parent/child attachment

Studied attachment in monkeys with artificial mothers

The difference in the child's ability to solve problems independently and their capacity to solve them with some help from others

researcher who focused on critical attachment periods in baby birds, a concept he called imprinting

her theory of parenting styles had three main types (permissive, authoritative, & authoritarian)

style of parenting in which parent is rigid and overly strict, showing little warmth to the child

parents who are firm, set clear limits, reason with their children, and explain things to them

A parenting style characterized by the placement of few limits on the child's behavior.

a baby's tendency, when touched on the cheek, to turn toward the touch, open the mouth, and search for the nipple

Reflex that causes a newborn to make sucking motions when a finger or nipple if placed in the mouth

an infant's clinging response to a touch on the palm of his or her hand

response that one makes after a sudden, unexpected loud noise or similar sudden stimulus

Reflex in which a newborn fans out the toes when the sole of the foot is touched

Erikson's first stage during the first year of life, infants learn to trust when they are cared for in a consistent warm manner

Erikson's stage in which a toddler learns to exercise will and to do things independently; failure to do so causes shame and doubt

Erikson's third stage in which the child finds independence in planning, playing and other activities

Erikson's stage between 6 and 11 years, when the child learns to be productive

Erikson's stage during which teenagers and young adults search for and become their true selves

One of Erikson's Psychosocial Stages of Development. Young Adulthood (19 to 40 years) Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with other people. Success leads to strong relationships, while failure results in loneliness and isolation. Being loved or alone

Erikson's stage of social development in which middle-aged people begin to devote themselves more to fulfilling one's potential and doing public service

Erikson's final stage in which those near the end of life look back and evaluate their lives

neo-Freudian, humanistic; 8 psychosocial stages of development: theory shows how people evolve through the life span. Each stage is marked by a psychological crisis that involves confronting "Who am I?"

created the most influential theory of moral development by expanding Piaget's theory

before age 9; self interest; obey rules to avoid punishment or gain concrete rewards.

second level of Kohlberg's stages of moral development in which the child's behavior is governed by conforming to the society's norms of behavior

adolescence and beyond; actions reflect belief in basic rights and self-defined ethical principles

The persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information.

The processing of information into the memory system.

The retention of encoded information over time.

The process of getting information out of memory storage.

The immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.

Activated memory that holds a few items briefly before the information is stored or forgotten.

The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system, including : knowledge, skills, and experiences.

A newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.

The processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions.

Unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information.

Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.

The conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage.

The tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice.

Our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list.

Memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.

Organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.

A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second.

A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.

An increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation.

Retention independent of conscious recollection (nondeclarartive or procedural memory).

Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare" (declarative memory).

A neural center that is located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage.

A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier.

A measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned.

A measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time.

The activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory.

That eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger the retrieval of an earlier experience.

The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood.

The disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information.

The disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information.

In psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories.

Incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event.

Attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined (source misattribution).

The mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

A mental grouping of similar objects, events, idea, or people.

A mental image or best example of category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for storing items into categories.

A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.

A simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently.

A sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem.

The ability to produce novel and valuable ideas.

A tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore it distort contradictory evidence.

The inability to see a problem from a new perspective, by employing a different mental set.

A tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past.

The tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions.

Judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information.

Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind, we presume such events are common.

The tendency to be more confident than correct-to over estimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.

Clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited.

An effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning.

The way and issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.

Our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning.

In language, the smallest distinctive sound unit.

In a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or part of a word.

In a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others.

The set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphed, words, and sentences in a given language; the study of meaning.

The rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language.

Beginning at about 4 months, the stage of Speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language.

The stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words.

Beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly two-word statements.

Early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram using mostly nouns and verbs.

Whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think.

the memory of autobiographical events that can be explicitly stated or conjured. It is the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place.

a highly detailed, exceptionally vivid 'snapshot' of the moment and circumstances in which a piece of surprising and consequential (or emotionally arousing) news was heard.

refers to improved recall of specific episodes or information when the context present at encoding and retrieval are the same.

the phenomenon through which memory retrieval is most efficient when an individual is in the same state of consciousness as they were when the memory was formed

an inability to retrieve information from one's past

an inability to form new memories

the course of forgetting is initially rapid, then levels off with time

failure to process information into memory

the inability to recall long-term memories because of inadequate or missing retrieval cues

encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention

narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

expands the number of possible problem solutions

humans have an inborn native ability to develop language

the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors.

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).

any event or situation that evokes a response.

the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language.

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events.

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning.

in classical conditioning, an un-learned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth).

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response (UR).

in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).

in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR).

in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.)

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.

(1) in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.

in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking.

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.

in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement).

increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response.

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need.

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer.

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced.

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.

an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows.

a system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension.

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus.

behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences.

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake.

a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment.

the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events.

the perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate.

the perception that you control your own fate.

the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards.

learning by observing others. (Also called social learning.)

frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation and empathy.

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.

researcher famous for work in observational or social learning including the famous Bobo doll experiment

Early behaviorist; famous for the "Little Albert" experiments on fear conditioning

Behaviorist that developed the theory of operant conditioning by training pigeons and rats

researched classical conditioning; found subjects learn the predictability of an event through trials (cognitive element)

cognitive psychologist; latent learning and cognitive map

Researched taste aversion. Showed that when rats ate a novel substance before being nauseated by a drug or radiation, they developed a conditioned taste aversion for the substance.

law of effect-the principle that behavior followed by favorable consequences becomes more likely and vice versa

the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment

the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations

the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere

failing to notice changes in the environment

conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret.

the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them

the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time

a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness.

below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response

the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time

the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount)

diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation

a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another

the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input; includes telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition

the study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis

mind to mind communication

perceiving remote events

perceiving future events

Have not been replicated under controlled conditions

the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. Electromagnetic wavelengths vary from the short blips of cosmic rays to the long pulses of radio transmission

the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth

the amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the wave's amplitude

the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters

a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening

the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina

the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information

the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina

retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond

retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.

the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain

the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind" spot because no receptor cells are located there

the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster

nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously

the theory that the retina contains three different color receptors—one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue—which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color.

the theory that opposing retinal processes enable color vision

an organized whole

the organization of the visual field into objects that stand out from their surroundings

the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups

the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance

a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals

depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes

a binocular cue for perceiving depth

depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone

Illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession

perceiving objects as unchanging even as illumination and retinal images change

perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object

the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field

the sense or act of hearing

the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time

a tone's experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency

the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window

a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses

the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs

hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerves; also called nerve deafness

hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea

a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea

the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated

the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch

the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The "gate" is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain.

the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts

the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance

the principle that one sense may influence another

the tendency to interpret an object as always being the same actual size, regardless of its distance

the tendency to interpret the shape of an object as being constant, even when its shape changes on the retina

The illusion of movement is produced by showing the rapid progression of images or objects that are not moving at all

an error in perception that occurs when we misperceive sounds because the audio and visual parts of the speech are mismatched.

our awareness of ourselves and our environment.

the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle. (

rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active.

the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state.

periodic, natural loss of consciousness—as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation.

the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep.

nonrapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep.

a pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm. In response to light, the SCN causes the pineal gland to adjust melatonin production, thus modifying our feelings of sleepiness.

recurring problems in falling or staying asleep.

a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.

a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings.

a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during NREM-3 sleep

a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind.

according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream

according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (as distinct from its manifest content).

the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation

continued substance craving and use despite significant life disruption and/or physical risk.

a chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods.

the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect. (M

compulsive craving of drugs or certain behaviors (such as gambling) despite known adverse consequences.

the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing an addictive drug or behavior.

drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions.

(popularly known as alcoholism). Alcohol use marked by tolerance, withdrawal, and a drive to continue problematic use.

drugs that depress central nervous system activity, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment.

opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety.

drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, Ecstasy, and methamphetamine) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.

drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes.

a stimulating and highly addictive psychoactive drug in tobacco.

a powerful and addictive stimulant, derived from the coca plant, producing temporarily increased alertness and euphoria.

a powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels.

a synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen. Produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to mood and cognition.

psychedelic ("mind -manifesting") drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input.

a powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid (lysergic acid diethylamide). Can produce hallucinations

an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death (such as through cardiac arrest); often similar to drug-induced hallucinations.

the major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations.

principle that info is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks

Alpha+Theta waves. Breathing becomes irregular, decrease in heart rate, body temperature and muscles tension :possible hypnic jerk(muscle contraction)

sleep spindles (short high-amplitude bursts); arousal is more difficult, sleep talking

deep sleep, slow delta waves, most restorative sleep, shorter as night progresses

nREMvivid sensory phenomena that occur during the onset of sleep

a period of sleep lasting about 90 minutes and including one or more stages of NREM sleep, followed by REM sleep

regulated by SCN, sensitive to light

diminish immune system

bad dreams occurring during REM sleep

a theory of dreaming; this theory proposes that the brain tries to make sense of random brain activity that occurs during sleep by synthesizing the activity with stored memories

Dreams provide "psychic safe value" - accepting otherwise unacceptable feelings, dreaming of secret desires (manifest content & latent content) - a hidden meaning.

dream content reflects dreamers' cognitive development- their knowledge and understanding

decreases REM sleep, leads to failure to process recent experience into long-term memory

the inability of the voluntary muscles to move during REM sleep. brainstem blocks messages from motor cortex

recurring problems in falling or staying asleep

occurring during deep sleep, an episode of moving around or walking around in one's sleep

speaking that occurs during NREM sleep

dreams provide the sleeping brain with periodic stimulation that helps preserve neural networks

the scientific study of behavior and mental processes

Founder of Psychology

opened first psychology lab in the US, and he founded and became the first president of the APA

early school of psychology promoted by Wundt and Titchener; used introspection to study how a conscious experience can be broken down into its component parts

Systematic self-observation of one's own conscious experience/sensations

founder of functionalism; studied how humans use perception to function in our environment

An early school of psychology that focused on how our mental and behavioral processes function - how they enable us to adapt, survive, and flourish.

first female president of the APA (1905); a student of William James; denied the PhD

Holds the distinction of being the first American woman to be awarded a Ph. D. in psychology. Best known for her experimental work in animal behavior.

Reformer who advocated for the humane treatment of the mentally ill.

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes and predicts observations.

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study.

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances.

a "study of studies" that combines the findings of multiple studies to arrive at a conclusion

Studies designed to observe and record behavior.

an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

when observations may be skewed to align with observer expectations

behavior of study participants is altered because they recognize that they are being studied

a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of them.

The effect that subtle changes in the words or order of words can have on a study participant

A tendency to give socially approved answers to questions about oneself.

a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample.

people who volunteer to participate in research studies often differ from those who do not volunteer

A sample that reflects the characteristics of the population from which it is drawn

All those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

A statistical measure of a relationship between two variables. Does not mean causation.

a statistical index of the relationship between two variables., varies from -1 to +1.

a relationship between two variables in which both variables either increase or decrease together

the relationship between two variables in which one variable increases as the other variable decreases

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables.

Perceiving a relationship where none exists. Or perceiving a stronger-than-actual relationship

the tendency for extreme or unusual scores to fall back (regress) toward their average.

the concept that a correlation between two variables may stem from both being influenced by some third variable

A research study conducted to determine the effect that one variable has upon another variable.

In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

The unconscious tendency for researchers to treat members of the experimental and control groups differently to increase the chance of confirming their hypothesis.

a type of research design where a comparison is made, as in an experiment, but no random assignment of participants to groups occurs

research design in which participants don't know whether they are in the experimental or control group

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. .

A nonspecific improvement that occurs as a result of a person's expectations of change rather than as a direct result of any specific therapeutic treatment.

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

The measurable effect, outcome, or response in which the research is interested.

anything that causes a difference between the IV and the DV other than the independent variable

The extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to.

Mathematical procedures for organizing collections of data, such as determining the mean, the median, the range, the variance, and the correlation coefficient

a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution

mean, median, mode

the average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores

The middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it.

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

When a distribution of scores is not distributed normally (and symmetrically).

The mean will be higher than the median in a positively skewed distribution.

The mean will be lower than the median in a negatively skewed distribution.

Distance between highest and lowest scores in a set of data.

Indicates both how much scores group together and how dispersed they are

A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.

describes a symmetrical, bell shaped curve that shows the distribution of many types of data

the percentage of scores below a certain point

a measure of how many standard deviations you are away from the norm (average or mean)

numerical data that allow one to generalize—to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population.

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

the hypothesis that there is no significant difference between specified populations, any observed difference being due to sampling or experimental error.

The probability of results of the experiment being attributed to chance.

can't harm an animal unless it benefits human welfare

1. informed consent

A committee at each institution where research is conducted to review every experiment for ethics and methodology.

a syndrome marked by a clinically significant disturbance in an individual's cognition, emotion regulation, or behavior.

a psychological disorder marked by the appearance by age 7 of one or more of three key symptoms: extreme inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity.

the concept that diseases, in this case psychological disorders, have physical causes that can be diagnosed, treated, and, in most cases, cured, often through treatment in a hospital.

suggests that a person may be predisposed for a mental disorder that remains unexpressed until triggered by stress

the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition; a widely used system for classifying psychological disorders.

Famous study where 8 men admitted themselves to mental institutions for hearing voices; showed therapists' bias to blame illness on life experiences

psychological disorders characterized by distressing, persistent anxiety or maladaptive behaviors that reduce anxiety.

an anxiety disorder in which a person is continually tense, apprehensive, and in a state of autonomic nervous system arousal.

an anxiety disorder marked by unpredictable, minutes-long episodes of intense dread in which a person experiences terror and accompanying chest pain, choking, or other frightening sensations. Often followed by worry over a possible next attack.

an anxiety disorder marked by a persistent, irrational fear and avoidance of a specific object, activity, or situation.

intense fear of social situations, leading to avoidance of such. (Formerly called social phobia.)

a disorder characterized by unwanted repetitive thoughts (obsessions) and/or actions (compulsions).

brain region that monitors our actions and checks for errors, plays a role in OCD

fear or avoidance of situations, such as crowds or wide-open places, where one has felt loss of control and panic.

a disorder characterized by haunting memories, nightmares, social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety, numbness of feeling, and/or insomnia that lingers for four weeks or more after a traumatic experience.

positive psychological changes as a result of struggling with extremely challenging circumstances and life crises.

psychological disorders characterized by emotional extremes. See major depressive disorder, mania, and bipolar disorder.

a mood disorder in which a person experiences, in the absence of drugs or another medical condition, two or more weeks with five or more symptoms, at least one of which must be either (1) depressed mood or (2) loss of interest or pleasure.

Problems regulating appetite

Mood disorder involving persistently depressed mood, with low self-esteem, withdrawal, pessimism, or despair, present for at least 2 years, with no absence of symptoms for more than 2 months.

a mood disorder marked by a hyperactive, wildly optimistic state.

a mood disorder in which a person alternates between the hopelessness and lethargy of depression and the over-excited state of mania. (Formerly called manic-depressive disorder.)

genetic component; scarce on serotonin and norepinephrine in depression; high serotonin and norepinephrine in mania

compulsive fretting; overthinking about our problems and their causes.

a psychological disorder characterized by delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, and/or diminished or inappropriate emotional expression.

a psychological disorder in which a person loses contact with reality, experiencing irrational ideas and distorted perceptions.

false beliefs, often of persecution or grandeur, that may accompany psychotic disorders.

false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus.

a psychological disorder in which the symptoms take a somatic (bodily) form without apparent physical cause. (See conversion disorder and illness anxiety disorder.)

a disorder in which a person experiences very specific genuine physical symptoms for which no physiological basis can be found. (Also called functional neurological symptom disorder.)

a disorder in which a person interprets normal physical sensations as symptoms of a disease. (Formerly called hypochondriasis.)

disorders in which conscious awareness becomes separated (dissociated) from previous memories, thoughts, and feelings.

a rare dissociative disorder in which a person exhibits two or more distinct and alternating personalities. Formerly called multiple personality disorder.

an eating disorder in which a person (usually an adolescent female) maintain a starvation diet despite being significantly (15 percent or more) underweight.

an eating disorder in which a person alternates binge eating (usually of high-calorie foods) with purging (by vomit ing or laxative use) or fasting.

significant binge-eating episodes, followed by distress, disgust, or guilt, but without the compensatory purging or fasting that marks bulimia nervosa.

psychological disorders characterized by inflexible and enduring behavior patterns that impair social functioning.

a personality disorder in which a person (usually a man) exhibits a lack of conscience for wrongdoing, even toward friends and family members. May be aggressive and ruthless or a clever con artist.

views behavior as influenced by the interaction between people's traits (including their thinking) and their social context.

A neurotransmitter that affects hunger, sleep, arousal, and mood.

A neurotransmitter involved in arousal, as well as in learning and mood regulation

Martin Seligman's theory that people become anxious and depressed when they make an attribution that they have no control over the stress in their lives (whether or not they actually have control).

anxiety that is unrelated to any realistic, known source

DSM provides labels for too many

Coping strategy people use to relieve stress at the expense of developing frustration tolerance; build in other coping strategies to replace it

The display of little or no emotion—a common negative symptom of schizophrenia.

state of immobility and unresponsiveness lasting for long periods of time

presence of inappropriate behaviors during schizophrenia

absence of appropriate behaviors during schizophrenia

intensifies brain signals creating positive symptoms

low activity in frontal lobes, out of sync neurons, increased activity in amygdala

can begin at any age, frequently occurs in response to an emotionally traumatic event, recovery more likely

a slow-developing process. Symptoms appear by late adolescence or early adulthood and as the people age, recovery doubtful

(1) Mother whose schizophrenia was severe or long lasting

The nearly 1-in-100 odds of a person being diagnosed with schizophrenia becomes 1-in-10 among those with a sibling or parent with the disorder.

abruptly leave home/work, unable to recall past. Confusion about identity or assume a new one.

A personality disorder characterized by consistent discomfort and restraint in social situations, overwhelming feelings of inadequacy, and extreme sensitivity to negative evaluation.

condition marked by extreme instability in mood, identity, and impulse control

characterized by a grandiose sense of self-importance, a preoccupation with fantasies of success or power, and a need for constant attention or admiration

A person's characteristic way of explaining his experiences. Consistently attributing bad experiences to internal, global, and stable causes may increase vulnerability to depression.

treatment involving psychological techniques; consists of interactions between a trained therapist and someone seeking to overcome psychological difficulties or achieve personal growth.

prescribed medications or procedures that act directly on the person's physiology.

an approach to psychotherapy that, depending on the client's problems, uses techniques from various forms of therapy.

Freud's therapeutic technique. Freud believed the patient's free associations, resistances, dreams, and transferences—and the therapist's interpretations of them—released previously repressed feelings, allowing the patient to gain self-insight.

in psychoanalysis, the blocking from consciousness of anxiety-laden material.

in psychoanalysis, the analyst's noting supposed dream meanings, resistances, and other significant behaviors and events in order to promote insight.

in psychoanalysis, the patient's transfer to the analyst of emotions linked with other relationships

therapy deriving from the psychoanalytic tradition that views individuals as responding to unconscious forces and childhood experiences, and that seeks to enhance self-insight.

a variety of therapies that aim to improve psychological functioning by increasing a person's awareness of underlying motives and defenses.

a humanistic therapy, developed by Carl Rogers, in which the therapist uses techniques such as active listening within a genuine, accepting, empathic environment to facilitate clients' growth. (Also called person-centered therapy.)

empathic listening in which the listener echoes, restates, and clarifies. A feature of Rogers' client-centered therapy.

a caring, accepting, nonjudgmental attitude, which Carl Rogers believed would help clients to develop self-awareness and self-acceptance.

therapy that applies learning principles to the elimination of unwanted behaviors.

behavior therapy procedures that use classical conditioning to evoke new responses to stimuli that are triggering unwanted behaviors; include exposure therapies and aversive conditioning.

behavioral techniques, such as systematic desensitization and virtual reality exposure therapy, that treat anxieties by exposing people (in imagination or actual situations) to the things they fear and avoid.

a type of exposure therapy that associates a pleasant, relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli. Commonly used to treat phobias.

an anxiety treatment that progressively exposes people to electronic simulations of their greatest fears, such as airplane flying, spiders, or public speaking.

a type of counterconditioning that associates an unpleasant state (such as nausea) with an unwanted behavior (such as drinking alcohol).

an operant conditioning procedure in which people earn a token of some sort for exhibiting a desired behavior and can later exchange the tokens for various privileges or treats.

therapy that teaches people new, more adaptive ways of thinking; based on the assumption that thoughts intervene between events and our emotional reactions.

a confrontational cognitive therapy, developed by Albert Ellis, that vigorously challenges people's illogical, self-defeating attitudes and assumptions.

a popular integrative therapy that combines cognitive therapy (changing self-defeating thinking) with behavior therapy (changing behavior).

therapy conducted with groups rather than individuals, permitting therapeutic benefits from group interaction.

therapy that treats the family as a system. Views an individual's unwanted behaviors as influenced by, or directed at, other family members.

the tendency for extreme or unusual scores to fall back (regress) toward their average.

a procedure for statistically combining the results of many different research studies.

clinical decision making that integrates the best available research with clinical expertise and patient characteristics and preferences.

a bond of trust and mutual understanding between a therapist and client, who work together constructively to overcome the client's problem.

the personal strength that helps most people cope with stress and recover from adversity and even trauma.

the study of the effects of drugs on mind and behavior.

drugs used to treat schizophrenia and other forms of severe thought disorder.

drugs used to control anxiety and agitation.

drugs used to treat depression, anxiety disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and posttraumatic stress disorder. (Several widely used antidepressant drugs are selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors—SSRIs.)

a biomedical therapy for severely depressed patients in which a brief electric current is sent through the brain of an anesthetized patient.

the application of repeated pulses of magnetic energy to the brain; used to stimulate or suppress brain activity.

surgery that removes or destroys brain tissue in an effort to change behavior.

a psychosurgical procedure once used to calm uncontrollably emotional or violent patients. The procedure cut the nerves connecting the frontal lobes to the emotion-controlling centers of the inner brain.

behaviorism/learning; pioneer in systematic desensitization, maintained that fear could be unlearned

described use of systematic desensitization to treat phobias

pioneer in Rational-Emotive Therapy (RET), focuses on altering client's patterns of irrational thinking to reduce maladaptive behavior and emotions

sought to reverse patient's catastrophizing beliefs about themselves, their situations and futures using cognitive therapy

drawing on multiple theories and approaches to therapy to tailor treatment for a client

the use of operant conditioning techniques to bring about desired changes in behavior

Dramatically exaggerating the negative consequences of any minor event

a therapy that helps people to cope with stressful situations by developing positive ways to think about the situation

Treats seasonal affective disorder (SAD); scientifically proven to be effective, exposure to daily doses of intense light. Increases activity in the adrenal gland and the superchiasmatic nucleus.

antidepressant drugs that achieve their agonistic effect on serotonin by selectively blocking its reuptake

Fluoxetine, paroxetine, sertraline, citalopram.

such as lithium, are used to treat mood instability and bipolar disorders

set of alterations in one's activities and behaviors to promote healthy living, has potential to prevent and treat physical and psychological conditions

the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another

We explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition

the tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition

feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events

occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness

the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request

a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave

the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort we feel when two of our thoughts are inconsistent

Adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.

influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval

influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality

improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable

the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity

the enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group

the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

an understood rule for accepted and expected behavior. Norms prescribe "proper" behavior.

an unjustifiable (and usually negative) attitude toward a group and its members. generally involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory action.

A generalized belief about a group of people

unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members

the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get

"Us"—people with whom we share a common identity.

"them" - those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup

the tendency to favor one's own group