a relatively permanent change in behaviour due to experience

a chemical messenger manufactured by a neuron that is released into the bloodstream and carried to target neurons or cells; compare with neurotransmitter

a hormone that may affect memory consolidation of emotionally arousing experiences; also called epinephrine

a neurotransmitter that plays crucial roles in the growth and strengthening of synaptic connections during learning and memory formation

structure located deep within the brain that has a crucial role in processing emotions

structure located deep within the brain that has a crucial role in the consolidation of most of our memories

the biological process of making a newly formed long-term memory stable and enduring after learning

explanation of changes to synaptic connections between neurons during learning; often summarised as 'neurons that re together, wire together'

the long-lasting decrease in the strength of synaptic transmission; compare with long-term potentiation

the long-lasting strengthening of synaptic connections, resulting in enhanced or more effective neurotransmission across the synapse; compare with long-term depression

the ability of the brain's neural structure or function to be changed by experience throughout the lifespan

the ability of a synapse to change over time through use or disuse

a type of learning which occurs through repeated association of two (or more) different stimuli

an emotional reaction in response to a specific stimulus acquired through classical conditioning

any object or event that produces (elicits) a response from an organism

a reaction by an organism to a stimulus

in classical conditioning, any object or event that does not normally produce a predictable response

an automatic reaction to something happening in the environment

in classical conditioning, any stimulus that consistently produces a particular unconditioned response

in classical conditioning, the response that occurs automatically as a result of the unconditioned stimulus; is reflexive or involuntary

in classical conditioning, the stimulus that is neutral at the start of the conditioning process and does not normally produce the unconditioned response but eventually becomes associated with the unconditioned stimulus and elicits a conditioned response

in classical conditioning, the learned or acquired response to the conditioned stimulus

responses that are initiated by the organism

the ability to distinguish between two (or more) different stimuli, even if the stimuli are similar

the gradual decrease in the strength or rate of a response; in classical conditioning, it occurs over time when the unconditioned stimulus is not presented; in operant conditioning, extinction occurs over time when reinforcement ceases

the reappearance of a conditioned response following a rest period and after its apparent extinction

the tendency for similar stimuli to produce the same, but not necessarily identical, response

a type of learning for which the consequences of a behaviour (e.g reward or punishment) determine the likelihood that it will be performed again in the future

a description and explanation of operant conditioning as having three parts that occur in a specific sequence: (1) antecedent; (2) behaviour; (3) consequence

any response (or set of responses) that acts on the environment to produce some kind of consequence

a stimulus that precedes a specific behaviour and signals the probable consequence for the behaviour

in the three-phase model of operant conditioning, refers to the voluntary action that occurs in the presence of an antecedent

in operant conditioning, the environmental event that occurs immediately after the relevant behaviour and determines whether or not that behaviour will occur

the presentation of a positive reinforcer following a desired response, thereby strengthening a response or making it more likely to occur again by providing a pleasant or satisfying consequence

a stimulus that strengthens or increases the frequency or likelihood of a desired response by providing a satisfying consequence

the removal or avoidance of an unpleasant stimulus, thereby strengthening or making a response more likely to occur

any unpleasant or aversive stimulus that, when removed or avoided, strengthens or increases the frequency or likelihood of a specific response occurring

when a stimulus strengthens or increases the frequency or likelihood of a response that it follows

the delivery of an unpleasant consequence following a response, or the removal of a pleasant consequence following a response

the removal or loss of a desirable stimulus thereby decreasing the likelihood of a response occurring again

the presentation of an unpleasant stimulus that decreases the likelihood of a response occurring again

when any stimulus valued by an organism is removed, whether or not it causes a response

when someone uses observation of a model's actions and the consequences of those actions to guide their future actions; also called modelling

an approach to describing and explaining learning that emphasises the importance of the social context in which the learning occurs

in observational learning, when an individual observes a model displaying behaviour that is either reinforced or punished and later behaves in the same way, in a modified way, or refrains from doing so as a result of the observation

in observational learning, when an individual observes a model displaying behaviour that is reinforced, which has the effect of increasing the likelihood of the observer performing that behaviour in a modified or identical way

in observational learning, when an individual observes a model displaying behaviour that is punished, which has the effect of reducing the likelihood of the observer performing that behaviour in a modified or identical way

the first step in the observational learning process that involves closely watching a model's behaviour and its consequences

the second step in the observational learning process involving memory storage of the observed behaviour so the behaviour may be reproduced when needed

the third step in the observational learning process involving imitation of behaviour that has been attended to and retained in memory. Dependent on the learner's physical capabilities.

the fourth step in the observational learning process. The desire to reproduce the observed behaviour.

influences the motivation to reproduce the observed behaviour and increases the likelihood of reproduction.

processing, storage and retrieval of information acquired through learning

in the Atkinson-Shiffrin multi-store model, a permanent, built-in fixed feature of memory that does not vary from one situation to the other

in relation to memory, conversion of information into a form that can be neurologically represented and stored in memory

in relation to memory, retention of encoded information over time

represents memory as consisting of three separate stores (components) called sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory

repetition of information over and over again so that it can be kept in short-term (or working) memory

the process of consciously manipulating information to keep it in short-term memory, to transfer it to long-term memory or to aid storage and retrieval

in the Atkinson-Shiffrin multi-store model, an activity that is consciously performed to assist the memory process, such as attention and maintenance rehearsal

the process of linking new information in a meaningful way with information already stored in memory or with other new information to aid its storage and retrieval from long-term memory

recovery of stored information and bringing into conscious awareness for use

the amount of information each store can hold at any given moment

length of time information can be held by each component

the entry point of memory in which the stimuli that bombard the senses are retained in their original sensory form for a very brief time

separate systems where it is believed incoming sensory information is stored for different periods. There is probably a separate one of these for each of the senses

auditory sensory memory for incoming auditory information that stores sounds in their original sensory form for about three or four seconds

visual sensory memory for incoming visual information that stores visual images in their original sensory form for a third of a second

a memory system with limited storage capacity in which information is stored for a relatively short time, unless renewed in some way; also functions as 'working memory'

the active processing and use of information that enables us to actively 'work on' and manipulate information while we undertake our everyday tasks

a memory store that holds a potentially unlimited amount of information for a very long time, possibly permanently

memory that occurs when information can be consciously or intentionally retrieved and stated

the long-term explicit memory of personally experienced events

the long-term explicit memory of facts and knowledge about the world

memory that does not require conscious or intentional retrieval

implicit memory of conditioned responses to conditioned stimuli acquired through classical conditioning

the long-term implicit memory of motor skills and actions that have been learned previously

outer layer of the brain involved in complex mental abilities, sensory processing and voluntary behaviours

method of retrieving information from memory

reproducing information stored in memory

reproducing information from memory in any order, without the assistance of any cue

reproducing information from memory in the order in which it was learned

reproducing information from memory by using a prompt to assist retrieval

any stimulus that assists the process of locating and recovering information stored in memory

a prompt for memory retrieval based on an individual's internal physiological and/or psychological state at the time the required memory was formed

a prompt for memory retrieval based on environmental factors in the specific situation in which the required memory was originally formed

in relation to memory retrieval, identifying the original, learnt information

learning informationagain that has been previously learned and therefore stored in long-term memory; also called savings

also called relearning; can be used to measure the amount of information 'saved' from previous learning

the inability to access or recover information previously stored in memory

a research finding that free recall is better for items at the end and beginning of a list than for items in the middle of the list

the cauliflower-shaped structure located at the base of the brain that looks like a mini-brain

explicit memory for the physical location of objects in space that enables us to navigate from place to place and to learn and remember locations

most evident when we retrieve an episodic memory of a specific event for which we can't recall or are uncertain about some of the details

a question that has content or is phrased in such a way as to suggest what answer is desired or to lead to the desired answer

any firsthand account given by an individual of an event they have seen

loss of memory only for information or events occurring after the trauma that causes the amnesia

loss of memory that is inconsistent with ordinary forgetting

a disorder characterised by a progressive decline in the structure, activity and function of brain tissue

any brain injury that impairs the normal functioning of the brain, either temporarily or permanently

combining stored information with other available information to form what is believed to be a more coherent, complete or accurate memory

the serial position effect of superior recall for items at the beginning of a list

the serial position effect of superior recall for items at the end of a list

a type of dementia characterised by gradual widespread degeneration of brain neurons, progressively causing memory decline, deterioration of cognitive and social skills, and personality changes