What is the Mendelian factor?

Who was the quantitative geneticist who proposed two viewpoints about the identity of genes?

What were the two viewpoints stated by R.A. Fisher which describes the identity of genes?

Out of the three chemicals proposed about the true composition of the chromosome, which is the genetic material?

Proteins are either histones (protamines) which are basic proteins, or non-histone chromosomal proteins which are acidic proteins.

The Correct Order of the Levels of Chromatin Packing for Eukaryotic Chromosomes

Who proposed the criteria of characteristics of a chemical to be considered as a genetic material?

FOR A MOLECULE TO BE CONSIDERED AS A GENETIC MATERIAL:

The molecule must be able to ____________ itself with extra fidelity (if there would be error, the error would occur in 1/1 Million Copies)

FOR A MOLECULE TO BE CONSIDERED AS A GENETIC MATERIAL:

The molecule must be a ________ _________; if there would be mutation, it will occur in very very low frequency. 

FOR A MOLECULE TO BE CONSIDERED AS A GENETIC MATERIAL:

Mutation is duplicated _____________.

It is another source of genetic variation. If it is useful to the organism, then there must be inheritance of this. 

A genetic material can carry all necessary ___________ information. "Can the molecule serve as storage of ____________ information?

A genetic material can transmit the information from ___________ to ____________

In a genetic material, stored information must be ________ and _________ into action.

In 1830, __________ were thought to be the most important molecule because they thought that it was the genetic material

Greek word origin of protein which means "of first important"

Proteios means what?

EVENTS LEADING TO THE DISCOVERY OF THE DNA

What did Friedrich Miescher call the molecule he isolated from the nucleus?

While characterizing proteins from ___ cells, Friedrich Mischer isolated the molecule from the nucleus and called it DNA in the 1930s, but first, it was actually called "nuclein".

He discovered that the most obvious cellular component of the cell is the nucleus.

What bacteria did Frederick Griffith use when he conducted his transformation experiment?

What strains did Frederick Griffith observe in the Streptococcus?

Steptoccoccus pneumoniae and its strains observed by Frederick Griffith

What's going to happen to a mouse injected with a rough strain?

What's going to happen to a mouse injected with a smooth strain?

What's going to happen to a mouse injected with a heat-killed smooth strain?

What's going to happen to a mouse injected with heat-killed Smooth strain mixed with living Rough strains?

What was the structure which protects the smooth strain in Living S cells? It is the same structure that can be destroyed by heat to expose the strain as a foreign substance for it to be destroyed by the mouse's immune system.

After observing the blood of the dead mouse that died from the injection which contained heat-killed S cells mixed with Living R cells, what caused the mouse to still die despite the destruction of the capsule in S cells?

It is said to be the characteristic/ability of the DNA which explains why it is the genetic material while the protein is not. 

THE EVENTS LEADING TO THE DISCOVERY OF THE DNA

What enzymes did Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod, and Maclyn McCarty use to show that the transforming principle is neither protein nor RNA because when the transforming principle was treated to remove the protein and RNA, the composition of the substance left matched the composition of DNA. So, the transforming principle was the DNA.

It is a virus that can infect a bacterial cell. It has a protein coat which contains the genetic material which is the DNA.

In the experiment of Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase where they separated the phages from the bacteria after infection, what were the corresponding labels assigned for the DNA and the Protein Coat?

During Hershey-Chase blending experiment, the phages grown with radioactive ³⁵S, for the result of the agitation in a blender and centrifugation of a test tube showcased that the radioactivity is in the liquid.

During Hershey-Chase blending experiment, for the phages grown with radioactive ³²P, the result of the agitation in a blender and centrifugation of a test tube showcased that the radioactivity is in the pellet.

Key Terms in Hershey-Chase Blending Experiment

In 1952, Norton, Zinder, Joshua, and Esther Lederberg performed what type of experiment in Salmonella typhimurium?

Transduction Experiment in Salmonella typhimurium 

THE ELUCIDATION OF THE DNA STRUCTURE

Photograph 51 showed X-ray diffraction of the DNA

Watson, Crick, and Wilkins received a nobel prize for DNA structure discovery, but Franklin was actually the one who pioneered crystallography X-ray diffraction which led to the discovery of the DNA structure. Unfortunately, Frankling died 4 years before the Nobel Prize was awarded in 1962. 

TRAIL OF THE ELUCIDATION OF THE MOLECULAR STRUCTURE OF THE DNA

SCIENTISTS WHOM WATSON AND CRICK CONSULTED TO DISCOVER THE DNA STRUCTURE

DNA Double Helix:  Phosphate and Sugar are ________ the structure while the bases are intact ________ the structure.

The Titles of Watson and Crick's Publication are:

1. "Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acid"

2. "Genetic Implication of the Structure of Deoxyribonucleic Acid"

A DNA is composed of a nucleotide. A nucleotide is composed of a phosphate group and a nucleoside. A nucleoside is composed of ____________ and __________ _____

What are the nitrogen bases?

FEATURES OF DNA

The DNA is composed of ___ _____________ strands. These _______________ strands are composed of repeating nucleotides wherein one nucleotide is attached to another nucleotide which is attached to another nucleotide...

FEATURES OF DNA

The two strands of the DNA are __________; you have to label the polarity of the strand. One strand would be 3' to 5' and the opposite strand would be 5' to 3' 

FEATURES OF DNA

There is _______ _____ pairing. A pairs only with T and vice versa. C only pairs with G and vise versa.

FEATURES OF DNA

the DNA forms a helical coil

FEATURES OF DNA

The sugar of the DNA is a ___________________ because the second position in the carbon of the sugar is deprived of oxygen, hence the name. Oxygen in the second carbon position of the sugar in the DNA is said to be removed.

For the sugar in RNA, it is ________ because the oxygen is present in the second carbon position of the sugar.

In the DNA structure, the sugar is attached to the base through what bond?

In the DNA structure, one nucleotide to the next nucleotide; the sugar-phosphate backbone is attached to another sugar-phosphate backbone through what bond?

10 base pairs is equal to how many nanometer:?

Every step or the proper distancing between steps is how many nanometer?

1 turn of the DNA helical structure is equal to 10 base pairs and 3.4 nanometer.

Pyrimidines have 1 ring while purines have two rings

Hydrogen bonding requirement for Adenine and Thymine are ____ hydrogen bonds. On the other hand, hydrogen bonding requirement for Guanine and Cytosine are _____ hydrogen bonds.

DNA Double Helix has major groove and minor groove.

EVIDENCE THAT THE DNA IS THE GENETIC MATERIAL

_________ ___________ of DNA in all diploid tissues

-even though you starve the cell, the DNA remains to be unchained. No nutrition in cell, but the DNA just pauses in resting. 

EVIDENCE THAT THE DNA IS THE GENETIC MATERIAL

Haploid cell has half the amount of DNA in diploid cell

EVIDENCE THAT THE DNA IS THE GENETIC MATERIAL

There is doubling of the DNA content at _ ___________

EVIDENCE THAT THE DNA IS THE GENETIC MATERIAL

Cells with extra chromosomes have proportional increase in DNA content.

Polyteny or Salivary Gland Chromosomes are also called?

EVIDENCE THAT THE DNA IS THE GENETIC MATERIAL

There is parallelism of UV absorption with __________ rates, because UV can destroy the DNA. As you increase the UV rate, that will increase the __________ rates.

EVIDENCE THAT THE DNA IS THE GENETIC MATERIAL

Transformation and Transduction in bacteria/gene transfer in bacteria prove that the DNA is the genetic material. The foreign genetic material is introduced via bacteriophage (transduction) and there is an uptake of free genetic material from the environment by the bacteria (transformation).

EVIDENCE THAT THE DNA IS THE GENETIC MATERIAL

The production of new viral particles in bacterial cells also prove that the DNA is the genetic material.

EVIDENCE THAT THE DNA IS THE GENETIC MATERIAL

The RNA content of the _______ ________ _____ caused infection and not the protein coat. This showss that RNA is also a genetic material, specially in the said virus, and this causes the infection and not the protein coat. This proves that DNA is the genetic material because RNA is transcribed from DNA.

Heinz Fraenkel-Conrat and B. Singer represented the two types of tobacco mosaic virus and its illustration of infection which proved that RNA is a genetic material as well.

The RNA structure is composed of one polynucleotide strand. It is single-stranded.

What is the sugar of RNA? The oxygen in the second carbon position is retained.

_________ replaces Thymine in RNA.

Before DNA replication, the ________ molecule has two complementary strands of the DNA in which each base is paire by hydrogen bonding with its specific partner: A=T, C=G.

It is a model of replication in which the parental double-helix remains intact and a second all new copy is made.

It is a model of replication in which the strands of parental molecule separate and each functions as a template for synthesis of a new complementary strand.

It is a model of replication in which each strand of both daughter molecules contains a mixturee of old and newly synthesized parts.

In 1958, they proved that replication is a semiconservative process through the process of growing E. coli in radioactive ¹⁵N and ¹⁴N

¹⁵N = Heavy

 ¹⁴N = Light

Combination of ¹⁵N and ¹⁴N = Hybrid

Then, they isolated the DNA and performed cauesium chloride centrifugation. 

Matthew Meselson and Franklin Stahl performed this process after isolating the DNA of E. coli, proving that replication is a semi-conservative process.

REPLICATION

Initiation starts at this site, where there would be formation of single-stranded DNA templates which requires several enzymes (helix-unwinding proteins and single strand binding proteins)

REPLICATION

It will cut the hydrogen bonds in between the two polynucleotide strands in order to create a DNA template. 

REPLICATION

This would be binding to the single strand DNA template to prevent reannealing or repairing. It keeps the strands from snapping back in order to retain the single strandedness of the template. 

REPLICATION

It removes the tension created during the process of unwinding; it relaxes the tension at the replication fork during unwinding.

REPLICATION

It synthesizes the RNA primer which is needed to provide the 3' OH end for the elongation step. RNA Primer initiates a hydroxyl group (OH) in preparation for the elongation to be ready to add nucleotides.

REPLICATION 

The two strands to be produced depend on the number of primers needed for them to be synthesized. 

RNA PRIMER AND PRIMASE

REPLICATION

It is the stage wherein the DNA is being formally replicated.

REPLICATION

It synthesizes DNA and complements the template strand by adding nucleotides one at a time starting at the 3' end to the 5' direction. 

REPLICATION

Since the DNA Polymerase III adds nucleotides starting at the 3' end in order to form a phosphodiester bond with the 5' phosphate group, we can say that the template it complements is:

REPLICATION

As elongation occurs, what happens to the leading strand? In which direction is it synthesized?

REPLICATION

As elongation occurs, what happens to the lagging strand? In which direction is it synthesized?

These are short DNA sequences found in the lagging strand, which are synthesized from the primase; synthesized discontinuously.

It is what the primase makes

Length of Okazaki Fragments in Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

REPLICATION

It is responsible for the excision of RNA primers and the filling in of gaps left by the primers through adding DNA. It is also the proofreader of the replication process; makes sure that it follows the specific base pairing.

The DNA Polymerase I removes the RNA primers and fills the gaps left by the primers with what?

REPLICATION

It is an enzyme needed which seals the nicks (absence of phosphodiester bond) by creating phosphodiester binds that joins together.

In this stage, of replication, two identical DNA molecules are said to be synthesized successfully. The cell knows when to stop, so this stage does not need any enzymes.

The two new DNA strands produced via replication are identical to each other.

The two new DNA molecules produced via replication are identical to each other.

The two new DNA strands are not identical to each other, but instead, they are identical to their original template strand.

It is initiated by the RNA primer in preparation for the elongation in order to be ready for more addition of nucleotides at the 3' end.

There must be a wway for the RNA primers to be removed (using the DNA Polymerase I which excises the primers and replaces them with DNA dNTPs), because if the primers were not removed, then you create a __________.

It is critical to know the polarity of the template strand because it will guide us onto which direction replication would be occurring.

In which direction does the RNA Primer provide the OH or Hydroxyl group, for the purpose of it being complemented one at a time by the DNA Polymerase III.

If you have a long DNA, there must be several sites or _______ of replication, forming bubbles.

Simultaneous synthesis of leading and lagging strands utilizes ___________ which is comprised of DNA polymerase III (main enzyme for complementation) with two catalytic core. 

It is associated with primosome which is composed of helicase and primase.

In actuality, the lagging strand is not actually lagging, but it is actually looped such that it synthesizes in a loop but the direction is same towards the fork but it needs to loop first. The lagging strand twists and enters the replisome so it can be complemented.

In order to be complemented, the lagging strand twists and enters this structure. 

These exist only for organisms with linear DNA. These are not present in organisms with circular DNA such as bacteria. 

If we remove the RNA primer and cut the DNA at this part, we shorten the message.

It is the enzyme that elongates or extends the strand or end of the chromosome to prevent shortening, knowing that during replication, telomeres are cut out, specifically for eukaryotes.

If already elongated, there will be primer synthesis, complementation, then removal of primer, and the elongated part which is the terminal end would show.

In a long DNA strand, in order for the DNA to be complemented, there are several Ori-sites which will be the origin of the replication process that creates _______/s.

All of these will be meeting each other, and now, two copies of of DNA/two daughter DNA molecules are produced.

"When sister chromatids separate from each other, what goes to one pole will be the same with the other chromatid going to the other pole" — genetic information going to this pole will be the same as the genetic information going to the other pole because prior to cell division, there is S phase (replication).

What are the three mechanisms of high precision replication?

EXCISION REPAIR MECHANISMS

Prokaryotic Chromosome Organization

PROKARYOTIC CHROMOSOME ORGANIZATION Versus EUKARYOTIC CHROMOSOME ORGANIZATION

LEVELS OF CHROMATIN PACKAGING

Just a Reference: If packaged, the human chromosome 1, the length of the chromosome is about 0.01 millimeter. There must be a way to package that long DNA, hence the  levels or organization of chromatin packaging.

Tymbal:

Place tymbal with haploid egg cells, and you link the DNA derived from the egg cells; end to end, the DNA's distance or length of the DNA would be the distance from: ______  to _______.

A long structure: DNA

When we talk about DNA, our point of reference would be the very small size of the nucleus.